Yo good peoples. Welcome once more to the virtual hamlet of non sequitur‑ville, population c.1. You may have noticed my annoying application of asinine alliteration and my tendency toward meandering narrative prose (duh!), so perhaps it’s some sort of disorder worth looking into. As hinted at previously, CRAVE Guitars is deliberately changing things around a bit this month. Nothing like a bit of variety, eh? You may well be grateful of a short(er) article after several recent rather lengthy and convoluted tomes, so I’m content to oblige on this particular occasion.
At the time of publication, autumn is wending its inexorable passage towards winter, so here’s a snippet of classical pertinent poetry to get you in the mood for some further flowery philology.
“There is a harmony in autumn, and a lustre in its sky, which through the summer is not heard or seen, as if it could not be, as if it had not been!” Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792‑1822)
Is it just me or do most sensible people wish for a world free from bellicose brutality? If only sensible people ran the world. If only the message would get through to said belligerent barbarians seemingly devoid of any form of reasonable moral compass. War = Bad. Peace = Good. Simple. The relevance, use and impact of words and their ability to generate positive change will become clear… eventually… I promise.
“No matter what anybody tells you, words and ideas can change the world” – John Keating (1927‑)
This time around, I thought I would spend a few moments of superficial but personal self‑analysis, something that I normally feel very uncomfortable about. Perhaps that’s the stereotypical reserved Brit syndrome, I don’t know. I rarely discuss myself, especially in the first person, so this is a very unusual post. While I might refer to this topic somewhat flippantly and to some extent facetiously, it turns out that, perhaps, the author presents somewhat of an enigma and a conundrum.
This exploratory examination is also probably something that will be of little interest to many readers so, if you want to quit at this point, that’s absolutely fine. Thanks for looking in. However, as this change of approach will impact on CRAVE Guitars business‑as‑usual output for a (hopefully short) while, it probably warrants a bit of explanation. If the idiom that ‘those who can’t write, write about writing’ holds water, well, here is all the evidence required for condemnation. Sadly few images this month, only thousands of words.
“If you want to change the world, pick up your pen and write” – Martin Luther (1483‑1546)
What I write
This article is something like the 84th since I started CRAVE Guitars’ online presence back in 2014 (more on that next month). Apart from the extended ‘hiatus’ (2020‑2023), articles have been published at the rate of one a month. I don’t actively engage with any other form of writing other than to keep a personal daily journal and the unavoidable daily communications.
As a professional bureaucrat for over three decades, I wrote a great deal of business documents, briefings, academic learning materials, strategic and business plans, project and performance management reports, speeches, presentations, etc. etc. All very ‘real’ and original in their own way; nothing particularly enjoyable or satisfying though. My frustration with organisational writing is that it was all ephemeral and didn’t make any noticeable difference to humanity, at least not directly. Looking back, there was no legacy of lasting change and nothing to show for all the hard work that went into it. Nothing ‘me’. The discipline, though, did teach me how to write but only in a structured, formal way. I would hate to think all those years of ‘training’ were for nought.
“The most valuable of all talents is that of never using two words when one will do” – Thomas Jefferson (1743‑1846)
For nearly the past decade, I’ve been writing about my near‑lifelong craving (sic!) for vintage guitars. Why? I love ‘em. Plain and simple. To me, they are an ‘amour-fou’ (an obsessive passion). Writing about vintage gear has (generally) been rewarding. It started with features on my own vintage guitars before branching out into features on brands, amps, effects and, latterly, bass guitars.
Over time, writing also extended to blog articles and that broadened out even further to include many other related topics – to a greater or lesser extent. Now, I’m writing about writing about vintage guitars et al. The next stage, as we’ll see later, I’ll be writing about writing about writing, all of which is getting just a bit circular, a bit like the mythical Ouroboros (NB. an ancient Egyptian and Greek symbol depicting a serpent consuming its own tail).
I will return to the topic of vintage guitars in due course; I’m just taking a pause from the risk of getting stuck in a barrel or dredging a rut (as well as mixing metaphors for fun, another annoying trait – apologies). I need to come up with another, different obtuse angle… or even a cute angle (lol) on vintage guitars, hopefully something not done by others.
“If you do not change direction, you may end up where you are heading” – Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama – c.480 400BCE)
Article writing about vintage guitars is one thing and it supports the CRAVE Guitars ‘brand’. However, I would like to do something different. Something non‑factual, something light and frivolously engaging, something that bestows some lingering fascination and perhaps something to stimulate debate. The value of the arts lies in its ability to provoke an emotional reaction, rather than simply to represent reality in some way. Discuss…
“Words have no power to impress the mind without the exquisite horror of their reality” – Edgar Allan Poe (1809‑1849)
I could write about many subjects other than vintage guitars and music. I have several other keen interests, although none quite as all‑consuming. However, generally speaking, writing about other disconnected things on this platform would divert focus away from vintage guitars and music.
Language is an interesting area of study. In many ways, language is like music, to be played and crafted into something ostensibly magical. Like music, language can be composed either well into a thing of beauty, or badly into a reprehensible ugly mess. I am fascinated by words and the way in which we can construct the vernacular in novel (sic!) ways. This might explain why I use a broad vocabulary in a discursive, arguably prolix, way. Why use one common word when several obscure ones will do (sorry, Mr. Jefferson)? Languorous language is rejected and embellished English rules Britannia, at least this tiny corner of it. One is not attempting to be ‘too clever by half’ (NB. A ‘Britishism’ used in, ‘The Interpreter’ (1958) by George J. Whyte‑Melville). Honest guv’nor. At least my particular portion of precisely practised poetic prose is entirely first hand. No plagiarism and no AI here.
“All I need is a sheet of paper and something to write with, and then I can turn the world upside down” – Friedrich Nietzsche (1844‑1900)
Latterly, I have been hampered by issues of copyright over images. For instance, I would really like to take a look at guitars as they have appeared in the visual arts throughout history (fine art, popular culture, film, etc.). However, to do that really requires images of the artworks to support the narrative. Without images, such an article (or series of articles more likely) would be utterly pointless. As a non‑profit entity, I cannot publish images without permissions and royalties, thereby rendering the entire concept moot, null and void before it even gets off the ground. Sigh.
“Your intuition knows what to write, so get out of the way” – Ray Bradbury (1920‑2012)
Why I write
A more difficult question requires a moment of introspection. I sometimes wonder what motivates people, me included, to write. Thus far, a good enough answer eludes me. One thing might be that I just feel compelled to write (not convinced). Another might be a wish to leave some sort of tangible record (if not possible to do so in other ways). Yet another may be that I simply enjoy the writing process (again, not convinced), regardless of whether anyone actually takes much notice. I have tried to estimate the audience and it is likely to be no more than a handful in total. In the end, it seems I can’t not do it (excuse the double negative).
An issue with writing for a virtual platform is that it could be wiped out entirely in an instant, never to be recovered, even if anyone wanted to resurrect it. Recently a malicious incident at my Internet Service Provider caused a near‑catastrophe; fortunately, everything was recovered after a few difficult days. Alternatively, once I end my tenure on this planet, CRAVE Guitars’ documents will disappear overnight. Forever. So much for a lasting legacy, eh?
So… if the absolute readership level is so trifling, the only possible conclusion I can reach is that article writing seems to be an immense amount of hard work and effort for such a small audience. Does that actually matter? Which brings me back to thorny question of why I bother. Perhaps the change of direction for a while might help to aid such contemplation. Perhaps it may be time to review my ‘return on investment’ and divert some effort from feature and article writing into another personal pet project, just for a while. The slowdown in acquiring vintage guitar gear also points in that direction.
“There are three rules for writing a novel. Unfortunately, no one knows what they are” – W. Somerset Maugham (1874‑1965)
Is it just that I’m just a bad writer? I hope not and I trust someone would have the courage to tell me if the content was genuinely awful, either in subject matter or narrative style. It seems, though, that I need to have some sort of restless creative outlet, something to relieve the intense pressure cooker raging in my chaotic cranium.
All in all, not a very deep analysis so far. There must (must there? Really?) be some other reason why I feel the urge to put fingertip to keypad and compose unfocused prosaic narrative for other folks to consume. Just a thought? How does one go about measuring competence in a subjective field such as writing?
Which brings us onto my idiosyncratic writing process. Pretentious? Undoubtedly. Profound? Perhaps, occasionally. Original? Is anything original these days? Entertaining? I would like to think so. Pointless? I hope not. I attempt to carve and mould my own distinctive style, rather than copy the approach taken by those far better at it than I will ever be. My unusual technique has developed into something weirdly eccentric and eccentrically verbose. I know that. I can’t help it. An eclectic style can certainly be divisive. Readers will probably either love it or hate it – no middle ground. I cannot, however, be apologetic for the facts. Sorry folks.
“Either write something worth reading or do something worth writing” – Benjamin Franklin (1706‑1790)
Why I do not allow comments
Apologies for hobby‑horsing for a moment. Time for a little biased judgemental opinion. You may have noticed that CRAVE Guitars’ does not allow comments on blog articles. Like most dudes with a massive superego and crippling self‑doubt, I am inherently super‑sensitive and have an innate fear of criticism and rejection.
I invest a considerable amount of time and effort in researching and writing monthly articles, probably 7‑10 full working days per article. So much so, that I am not prepared to submit my efforts to ridicule by acerbic trolls who put absolutely zero time, effort and intellect into being confrontational for no other reason than they can. I am willing to forgo the occasional positive comment in order to evade many negative ones. I welcome constructive criticism but I will not lay myself open to ignorance, reactionary contempt and derision.
Anti-social media has sadly become a vitriolic battle ground for the disgruntled to promulgate their abhorrent brand of ‘free speech’ (Musk et al take note). In the ‘free’ world, it may be a right to express one’s opinion but true rights carry significant moral responsibility in order to balance out deviant extremes. Freedom is not about being able to do and say whatever one wants with impunity. ‘Free speech’ is not a poorly conceived unilateral entitlement, it carries with it weighty conscience and considerable consequence. Hard fought for freedoms are a privilege within tolerant societies and should be cherished and nurtured, not abused on a whim.
“Virtue is persecuted more by the wicked than it is loved by the good” – Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama – c.480 400BCE)
Don’t get me wrong, I am a staunch anti‑censorship advocate but, let’s be honest here, that isn’t what these self‑appointed critical pseudo‑moralists are all about. These self‑styled evangelists want selective liberties that support their prejudiced dogmas and insist on selective suppression of anything that does not accord with such partisan doctrines.
I do not shy away from genuine, healthy debate (whether ‘intellectual’ or not) but I abhor confrontation, especially pointless assaults based on indoctrination or proselytization. It is even worse for disagreements on petty principle to be played out visibly in the public domain. I’ll leave all that contemptuous cacophony of cruelty to self‑opinionated ‘influencers’ and ‘celebrities’ and their trite, trivial tantrums.
Neither do I wish to commit far too much of my life wasting time and effort on people who have no special interest in the subject matter. If someone really wants to get in touch, they can – the e‑mail address is at the bottom of every page on the web site. All I ask for in any communication is authenticity, integrity, dignity and respect. Everything else will be summarily blocked and deleted.
People, eh? Not a fan. ‘Nuff said. (NB. A colloquial idiom and contraction of ‘enough said’, implying the end of discussion, first documented in 1778 by playwright Henry Brooke)
“One day I will find the right words, and they will be simple” – Jack Kerouac (1922‑1969)
Deep Thinking
Apologies folks, we’re going on a quick diversion for a trifling titbit of cognitive psychology. That’s the discipline which helps us to understand how humans obtain, process, store and use information. It is about perception, memory, language, attention, creativity, intuition and reasoning. Don’t panic! It will make sense. The idea of deep thinking is not new, Greek philosopher Socrates (c.470‑399BCE) suggested that we reflect on and question the world around us.
Having tried many times over many years, it seems that I am totally incapable of diving deeply into my own internally‑focused thought processes to resolve who I really am, what I really need and why I am the way I am. I simply cannot ‘find’ myself, using common parlance. My inner psyche remains concealed from me. Yet, I seem to have little difficulty contemplating universal unknowns, suggesting an external focus. Perhaps, I thought, it was worth investigating what’s going on.
“Creativity is intelligence having fun” – Albert Einstein (1885-1955)
The author’s dipolar struggle may explain a lot while also raising many questions. It appears, for want of an emotive label, to make me a ‘conflicted soul’. This is not a medical or psychotherapeutic prognosis, simply an entirely amateur observation. However, it triggered some shallow yearning for insight. For the list‑o‑philes out there, this is one of only two this month. Enjoy.
Twelve traits of deep thinking people include:
Introverted – Reserved and quiet. A loner who doesn’t seek social interaction and actively avoids contact with people. Reclusive
Observant – Say less, observe more. Pausing before reaching a conclusion. Not easily swayed by popular opinion
Quirkily humorous – Silly, juvenile, witty, comical and often self‑deprecating, often misunderstood
Avid reader – Thirsty for knowledge with an innate need to learn more and expand understanding
Forgetful – Overlook trivial social obligations and daily chores, as these things don’t much matter. Easily distracted. Tendency to overthink. Hard to relax
Intensely curious – Highly inquisitive. Never bored. Question assumptions. Interested in BIG issues. Passionate for learning and knowledge. Embracing of ambiguity and complexity
Forward planner – take time to think about the future and where to fit in (or not). Strategic and not detail oriented
Problem solver – Analyse patterns, identify potential obstacles, build innovative approaches and develop potential practical solutions
Socially awkward – Dislike many culturally accepted norms, roles and expected behaviours on a daily basis. Meaningful conversations matter, not small talk
Fiercely independent – Highly self‑reliant, content with solitude as a conscious choice. Doesn’t seek contact with, or dependence on, others
Creative – Artistic, imaginative, inventive, original, resourceful. Interested in the new and different (NB. ‘new’ implies ‘different’ by default)
Empathic – Emotionally sensitive. Compassionate and understanding, able to see both sides of a situation. Open minded
I check at least 13 out of the 12! So, does that make me a deep thinker? I genuinely don’t think so. What I do know, though, and this the point, I don’t think like other people. I never have. What does this actually mean in the real world? How long have you got? It also might explain why I don’t know what to do when (if!) I ever grow up. I fear that I will (have to) grow up one day. It may account for my aberrant behaviour, delusional thought processes and deviant misanthropic attitude. I said this was going to be short, so the answers to these querulous questions are possibly best left for another time and place. If at all. Ever. Don’t hold your breath.
“The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its reason for existing” Albert Einstein (1885-1955)
Ambitions and aspirations
I am long past being driven, self‑seeking and ambitious. That was my decades‑long professional life working for ‘the man’, thankfully now behind me. Now, it is (largely) up to me what I do. My post‑employment lifestyle doesn’t accord with ruthless go‑getting, not that I ever had a game‑playing ‘killer instinct’ anyway. The rat race (NB. The term rat race dates back at least to 1783, used to describe a literal race between rats, now used as a metaphor for a pointless and relentless, competitive struggle) is now for others to endure. I still have lofty aspirations. Probably deluded ones but aspirations nevertheless. Doing something that matters is a key stimulus.
The one thing that I would like to achieve is to be a better human bean. Failing that, I would like to play guitar better and learn the language of music. Failing that, I would like to write better. It seems important to me to have my work valued and appreciated – for some sort of external validation (not very Zen). In addition, for some reason I really cannot glean, I yearn to leave some form of lasting legacy behind; a simple mark on the universe rather than the total obscurity of being just one anonymous, invisible momentary placeholder in the 8+ billion transient souls on this infernal rock of ours. Basically, I do not want to be forgotten – as if I’d never existed.
“Fiction is an improvement of life” – Charles Bukowski (1920‑1994)
That’s it in a nutshell. That’s not too much to ask is it? Probably. So what? A knotty question that leads me neatly onto…
This is IT – The Distortion Diaries
If, by this point, you are wondering where all this is going, it is now time for the ‘BIG REVEAL’. I have hinted that I would be changing my approach for a (hopefully) short period of time and that there was a genuine reason for doing so. Now is time to divulge my poorly premeditated plan. The result is… ‘The Distortion Diaries’.
Last year (2023), I wrote a first draft of a fiction novel. As already mentioned, I wanted to do something different. Something imaginative and original, not factual and not opinionated. I intended to undertake a first edit earlier in 2024 and to expand the content considerably during the summer and be going through a second, harsh edit around now. Unfortunately, other unavoidable activities and my diligent approach towards research and writing CRAVE Guitars articles has prevented me from sticking to the plan. With everything else going on, something had to give. Capacity is finite and there simply wasn’t enough of it to dedicate to a novel as well. Such a venture requires better than that.
So… the aim is to make a bit of space and time to do some of the focused work on the novel. Writing fiction is quite different from articles and presents a new discipline. It isn’t something that can be picked up and put down on a whim. It takes lengthy periods of comprehensive concentration. If the novel is ever going to reach fruition, it implies a bubble of space and time in which to do it.
“Description begins in the writer’s imagination but should finish in the reader’s” – Stephen King (1947‑)
When I started writing ‘The Distortion Diaries’, I intended it to be a fictional part‑biography of a wannabe musician. However, very early on, I realised two key things. The first key factor was that the subject matter on its own could not avoid cliché – it would be utterly predictable and therefore probably exceedingly dull. The second key factor was that such a story would be very short unless there was a significant amount of irrelevant, boring filler (to be avoided!). So the shape and style morphed into something completely and utterly different. Once I’d had the epiphany, everything fell into place. Like the CRAVE Guitars name, the title, ‘The Distortion Diaries’ has multiple meanings.
‘The Distortion Diaries’ could now be described as a rom-sex-com-music-bio-mystery-drama-thriller-fantasy about man’s eternally favourite tripartite – sex, drugs and rock & roll (not necessarily in that order). Oh, and the meaning of life (42, according to author Douglas Adams), as well as a coming of middle‑age saga. That is a very broad ‘genre’ mash‑up. It could potentially prove to be a disastrous mess, even with careful handling.
‘The Distortion Diaries’ will carry a strong ‘Parental Advisory’ warning, for two reasons. One is that parents should probably not read it. Another is that it is extremely explicit. The latter is something that authors try to suggest rather than be overt. Why? I find political correct avoidance of fundamental human motivations and behaviours exasperating and represent a centuries‑long unwritten rule just begging to be broken, whether people like it or not. Nobody forces someone to read something, it is an entirely discretionary activity. If you don’t like it, go and read something you do like. Your choice.
“Words can be like X‑rays if you use them properly–they’ll go through anything. You read and you’re pierced” – Aldous Huxley (1894‑1963)
‘The Distortion Diaries’ is very different from your average high street and supermarket pop novel. Neither is it ‘pulp fiction’ (NB. Popular grimy and lurid genre novels printed on cheap paper, called ‘pulp’, dating from the early 20th Century). This ‘epic’ work is written intended for universal consumption and represents an uncompromising condensation of mainstream mundanity, intense sexuality and serendipitous happenstance. The Distortion Diaries is a colourful tale about the monochrome lives of plain ordinary people with a controversially unorthodox denouement. Let’s not get carried away, ‘Fifty Shades of Grey’ this is not. Sorry ‘bout that.
“There is no real ending. It’s just the place where you stop the story” – Frank Herbert (1920‑1986)
The story eschews traditional three‑act structure and attempts to avoid bland ‘creative writing’ clichés. Neither does it fall into the beatnik‑style stream of consciousness one‑act structure. It does, however, attempt to tell a straightforward story while also trying (hopefully) to subvert expectations. The only formulaic concession is its adherence to a well‑trodden linear, episodic diary‑type structure (the hint is in the title folks!).
Who is my writing inspired by? No‑one in particular. Just good writing in whatever form. Who is my writing like? I would never be so vain as to venture comparison. Who is The Distortion Diaries written for? Everyone (adult) and no‑one. I guess I wrote it for myself. Why should anyone read it? Difficult one. Perhaps someone seeking a temporary, idle distraction from the hard realities of birth, life and death. What do I like to read? A very diverse range of fictional works with few particular commonalities. Moving on…
“Words have a magical power. They can either bring the greatest happiness or the deepest despair” – Sigmund Freud (1856‑1939)
The novel’s synopsis is a crucial summary that tests from the outset whether there is anything worthwhile to the concept. The following outline is intentionally vague and ambiguous. If too much is given away in a ‘teaser trailer’, it won’t hold any surprises later on.
“The Distortion Diaries.
Terry plays in a band. He doesn’t have a Girlfriend. He hasn’t had a Girlfriend for some time. Terry has a dreary job in IT. He lives alone with his feline overlord. One day, Terry decides to document his wretched existence in a journal. Rather than the journal reflecting and recording Terry’s dreary life, the journal begins to change it. A Lot. Is Terry’s life pre‑determined by fate or is his destiny in his own hands? Only his journal knows.
Based on a false story”
Intrigued? I hope so. Even I was pleasantly surprised how it turned out, even in rough first draft form. No profound insights into existential enquiries on this occasion. Let’s be clear, this is not serious literature; it is purely for entertainment purposes. Light and fluffy it certainly ain’t though.
“What is written without effort is in general read without pleasure” – Samuel Johnson (1709‑1784)
Mock‑up cover artwork has already been designed, although I feel it’s a bit premature to publish at this juncture, as it may change drastically. Sorry folks. Hopefully, I’ll drop that if/when there is a future update.
I guess it could have been called, ‘The Karma Chronicles’ but I prefer the chosen title. Just to set the record straight, it is NOT in any way autobiographical. The fact that I play guitar (badly) and I am owned by a cat is neither here nor there. As a ‘writer’, I do occasionally steal the ‘good stuff’ from my own repertoire, so there may well be the odd choice phrase from CRAVE Guitars’ articles appearing in the script.
At some point, I will have to produce a more detailed ‘pitch’ that summarises the content but that will come once the task of expanding the narrative, fleshing out the characters and editing the full novel for coherence has been completed. I think the ‘pitch’ is important, as it provides an important reality check during the process. If the ‘pitch’ doesn’t work, the whole thing won’t work. Simple as that. I hope to finish writing and editing the novel in 2025. No pressure then.
“The first draft is just you telling yourself the story” – Terry Pratchett (1948‑2015)
Ideally, I would like to go against the norm (nothing new there!) and self‑publish this little vanity project of mine. I have absolutely no idea how to go about self‑publishing or even if it possible, let alone feasible. Then there are the not‑inconsequential issues of distribution and sales. That, though comes much later. Currently, there is nothing to deliver and peddle. So, first things first.
The trick, if there is one, is to find a way to build an identity that cuts through and stands out from the thousands of other works churned out every day, week, month and year. CRAVE Guitars hasn’t succeeded yet (sadly), so it is clear that there is absolutely no chance of a breakthrough by simply existing these days. If anyone has any bright ideas or can help bring this assignment to fruition, please let me know.
Readers may have noticed over the last decade that I do not seek fame and fortune. I keep my private persona very much out of the limelight and I try to remain intentionally anonymous. For this reason, ‘The Distortion Diaries’ (if it ever enters the public domain) will appear under a nom de plume (the pseudonym has already been decided, to be revealed at a later date). I shall endeavour to remain an enigma hiding behind the keyboard’s shadow.
“There is nothing to writing. All you do is sit down at a typewriter and bleed” – Ernest Hemingway (1899‑1961)
I did contemplate publishing ‘The Distortion Diaries’ in serialised form on the website. I decided against it for three main reasons. The first is that a purely fictional tale doesn’t really ‘fit’ with the CRAVE Guitars ‘brand’ – basically it has nothing to do with vintage guitars. Even if the novel’s protagonist is a guitarist, the stretch is too far to make sense. The second is that it is, as mentioned above, extremely explicit, which isn’t what I want CRAVE Guitars to be known for. The third is that the duration of a serialisation would side‑line all other subject matter for a couple of years, which I am not really prepared to do. However, if it is ever published, I am sure that I won’t be able to resist promoting it here.
If, as forecast by my overly well‑telegraphed lack of confidence and low self‑esteem, I don’t get anywhere with writing and publishing it as a novel, I may decide to abridge it and publish sanitised excerpts on the web site. It would not be an ideal outcome but possibly better than it being lost in the infinite void of forgotten and cancelled dreams, like the noblest endeavours of so many other wannabe authors.
“Words do not express thoughts very well. They always become a little different immediately after they are expressed, a little distorted, a little foolish” – Hermann Hesse (1877‑1962)
20 Questions
What follows is a mock ‘interview’ with the author of ‘The Distortion Diaries’
Will ‘The Distortion Diaries’ ever be published? Probably not but I hope so.
Will it be an international best seller? Definitely not.
Awards worthy? Not a hope in hell – and I’ve been there.
Will it be worth a punt? Our protagonist insists on that being the case.
Is it sordid and seedy? Yup, for sure, for sure. Full of sleaze and exploitation.
Unhinged? Not even close. Bad things do happen but so do good things.
Is it edgy? It depends on the reader’s perspective. I try to manipulate ideas, as well as to challenge assumptions and undermine preconceptions.
Is it controversial? Hopefully it will generate credible debate. And criticism. Lots of criticism.
Will it offend people? It is not intentional but, inevitably, someone will always find something to complain about.
It sounds divisive? Like Marmite. Lots and lots of Marmite.
What’s all this about ‘distortion’? It has multiple meanings. You’ll have to read it to find out.
Is it a feel good or feel bad story? It doesn’t matter, as long as you feel something.
Isn’t it just the same old tortured muso type, struggling in a tired pop music industry cliché, overcoming the odds? I haven’t read every genre saga but I don’t believe that it is overly derivative. Nothing is truly original these days.
Will readers learn anything about the human condition? If they are open‑minded, possibly. The male experience is woefully under‑represented in contemporary fictional literature. This may help to address the imbalance.
What message is it trying to convey? Whatever the reader wants to deduce.
Will there be other stories or sequels? Who knows? I don’t. I have some ideas for a cunning spin‑off though.
If you had to use just one word to sum up the story, what would it be? Compelling.
How will people be able to read it? To be determined. It’s too early to say.
Who would you like to direct a movie of the story? Irrelevant. It’s never going to happen.
I personally do not seek social recognition or even the prospect of it. However, I would like to think that the product of my creativity might one day be admired. That would be a bonus rather than a rationale. Simply a desire to stimulate thoughts through my work and the knowledge that such thinking exists, albeit ephemerally. My satisfaction and reward comes in the execution of the process to the best of my ability (good or bad). I may write the story that no-one will ever read. However writing it is my achievement and my only necessary reward. Any success would constitute welcome deferred gratification. Very Zen.
Final thoughts on the power of words
I started off by saying that words have the power to generate positive change. Well… CRAVE Guitars’ features and blog articles haven’t really achieved that, have they? So, will The Distortion Diaries change the world? Sadly, it won’t. However, in the meantime, it might generate some harmless satisfaction and gentle fulfilment as a diversion from our otherwise mundane existences.
Closing the loop started at the top of this article… Should I attempt to change the world? Yes, absolutely. We all should do our bit to promote a better civilisation, society, communities, families and ourselves. We should not accept anything other than peace. We are, after all, partly responsible, even accountable, for how things are today, tomorrow and all the days thereafter. Future generations will scrutinise what we did to our planet and species.
“So, I want you to get up now. I want all of you to get up out of your chairs. I want you to get up right now and go to the window. Open it, and stick your head out, and yell: ‘I’m as mad as hell and I’m not going to take this anymore!’” – Howard Beale (character in the film, ‘Network’ (1976), played by Peter Finch).
Together, if the collective will is there, a united movement for a better world can achieve greatness. Easily said, hard to accomplish. It is way too easy to abrogate our moral and ethical duties, and look to others for blame, redemption and salvation. The lame “it wasn’t me, I didn’t do it” argument is simply not good enough.
“I didn’t do it, nobody saw me do it, you can’t prove anything” – Bart Simpson
Great words, carefully chosen can help to bring about great things. There are not enough vocal advocates for good. There are fewer vocal advocates who have the means for good. There are even fewer vocal advocates with the will and the means for good.
“An idea that is developed and put into action is more important than an idea that exists only as an idea” – Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama – c.480 400BCE)
Poorly chosen words can do a great deal of harm, as can carefully chosen words of bad people. Most of the rhetoric we hear from those in positions of power today is largely negative and critical. Propaganda obscures the truth such that we no longer know what truth is. War has never brought peace, only cataclysmic carnage. Only diplomacy through sincere words can stop war and deliver lasting reconciliation.
“Whatever words we utter should be chosen with care for people will hear them and be influenced by them for good or ill” – Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama – c.480 400BCE)
You may say that such a simplistic stance is all a bit of ‘pie in the sky’ (NB. a phrase coined by itinerant immigrant labourer Joe Hill in 1911 to describe unrealistic goals), and an outmoded hippie pipe dream (NB. a 19th Century phrase referring to the dreams experienced by opium pipe smokers). You may say that such hope is just delusional romanticism and impossible wishful thinking? Guilty as charged. One has to have hope in a better humanity, otherwise we are all doomed. Time to change, then.
“I do not believe in a fate that falls on men however they act; but I do believe in a fate that falls on them unless they act” – Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama – c.480 400BCE)
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Album of the Month‘
As I’m changing things around a bit, there is no relevant reason for this month’s selection. So… what was the first ever album you bought for yourself, with your own money? Well, the simple answer to that question for me was…
Pink Floyd – Meddle (1971). ‘Meddle’ was the 6th studio album by the English progressive rock band Pink Floyd. It was released in November 1971 on the Harvest record label in the UK. The first side of the album comprises 5 tracks including the opener, ‘One of These Days’, while the second side is a single, epic 20 minute track, ‘Echoes’. The cover art is a strange photo of a submerged ear, designed by Storm Thorgerson at Hipgnosis, the trendy design studio of the time. Hipgnosis was famous for creating other Pink Floyd album covers, as well as artwork for other famous rock bands of the time, such as Led Zeppelin, Genesis and Yes. To me, ‘Meddle’ marks a watershed between early Floyd and later Floyd, as well as a personal transition from pop music to serious ‘real’ music. A coming‑of‑age LP in you like.
Why was this album my first? DJ John Peel played the album in its entirety on release on his late night show on Radio One in the UK. I hadn’t heard anything like it before and it ‘blew my mind’ (man!). I guess most people have that ‘one’ album that changed their life. ‘Meddle’ was that one for me. I just had to own a copy. It still stands the test of time today.
“Music is the universal language of mankind” – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807‑1882)
Tailpiece
Well, there you have it. That turned out longer than I’d anticipated and took more time than I had allowed for. I haven’t made much time or space for writing fiction so far. Sigh. Note to self… be more succinct, pithy, brief, concise, epigrammatic, etc. Second note to self… use less tautology.
So, a new perspective and a new side venture for CRAVE Guitars. Not a core CRAVE Guitars activity but a definite spin‑off. ‘They’ say there is nothing like a bit of variety, so a change in style and content for a few articles can’t be a bad thing in my opinion. Right? Remember, you heard about, ‘The Distortion Diaries’ here first. Write on.
You may have noticed that I regularly splatter the odd quote throughout CRAVE Guitars articles. These aren’t just random asides for no reason; they are relevant to the exposition and, hopefully, add some essential colour to an otherwise monochrome pallet of words. This month, the selection of quotes is particularly pertinent and, I hope, a little thought‑provoking. If only my meagre, mediocre mind could articulate such inspiring ideas in so few words.
To quote actor Patrick McGoohan’s character, No. 6 in ‘The Prisoner’ (1967‑1968) TV series, “Be seeing you”.
Truth, peace, love, and guitar music be with you always. Until next time…
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Quote of the Month’: “I would rather be an anonymous genius than a well‑known idiot”
Hello there plentiful peaceful people. Welcome to autumn 2024, with the sultry summer sunsets fading behind us into hazy reminiscence once again. As the American band Earth, Wind & Fire celebrated in 1978, here we are in, ‘September’. “Hey, hey, hey! Ba‑dee‑ya, say do you remember?” Once it’s gone, it’s gone and all we have left is in the here and now. Make the most of now, I suggest. What we will be in the future is what we do now. As one sage dude put it much better than I can…
“The past is already gone, the future is not yet here. There’s only one moment for you to live, and that is the present moment” – Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama – c.480‑400BCE)
Furthermore, a message to all the immoral hegemonic oppressors intent on senseless conflict and unnecessary destruction out there, here is another titbit (NB. tidbit in the US – from 17th Century English ‘tyd bit’) of astute advice from the sagacious spiritual leader.
“Better than a thousand hollow words is one word that brings peace” – Buddha
This month’s article is a little different. Firstly, it is Part II of a longer piece and I didn’t want to leave a long break between the parts. Then, secondly (NB. ‘secondly’ usually comes after ‘firstly’, after all, so the numbering is essentially superfluous) because I want to make some time and space for something else (to be announced in due course). This means that Part II is being published in early September, rather than the usual distribution deadline at the end of the month.
As I mentioned at the conclusion of last month’s article, I felt it was better to split this genre article on dance and dance music into two articles which are easier to digest and, together, form a coherent whole. The first part covered a period from pre‑history to the 1950s. This article picks up directly where the last one left off, from the 1950s onward. To cap the article off, there is a casually speculative look into the future of dance and dance music.
If you want to reprise or access Part I of this article for the first time, you can read it here (opens in a new tab):
Rather than go for a protracted preamble, as is my usual wont, pointlessly reiterating material from Part I, let’s get straight down to business. Time to get your Funk on!
Modern Dance and Dance Music
By this heading, I mean the underground, mainstream and popular dance music scene in whatever form, from the birth of Rock & Roll to the current day. These seven decades represent the main section of the article.
The rest of this article will concentrate on sixteen modern dance music ‘genres’ in an attempt to encompass the majority of popular styles. The approach I’ve taken is unorthodox and arbitrary but some structure is needed. Each genre could probably deserve an article in itself, so substantial omissions have been necessary to condense the remaining material into Part II. Where subjective generalities and assumptions have been made, they inevitably lead to some factual errors/inaccuracies, as well as omissions. Sorry ‘bout that. So… without further ado, let’s jump in with two left feet and Rock & Roll…
“We should consider every day lost on which we have not danced at least once” – Friedrich Nietzsche (1844‑1900)
Rock & Roll (1954‑1964 – Peak 1958):
Rock & Roll is popular dance music originating in the 1950s, recognisable with its heavy beat and simple melodies. Song structures were usually based around the established twelve‑bar blues format and usually played on guitar, double bass, and drums (and occasionally piano) to produce catchy danceable tunes.
Rock & Roll emerged from a fusion of Jazz, Blues and Country influences in the mid‑1950s. Black Rhythm & Blues (R&B) and white Country music were cited as key components, including a splash of Gospel and Folk for good measure. It is perhaps surprising that the watershed of modern popular music that rock & roll represented arrived so late into the 20th Century.
Rock & Roll saw the emergence of the previously ‘invisible’ teen culture, which included fashion, music, language and attitudes. The cultural influences of early Rock & Roll songs dealt with youth‑related issues such as cars, school, dating, hairstyles and clothes. For the first time, teens were demanding to be listened to and to be taken seriously, rather than condemned as juvenile delinquents by typically conservative moral guardians.
While the origins of Rock & Roll date back to earlier decades, as far back as the 1920s, and the term ‘rock and roll’ had been used before, it is widely thought that American radio DJ Alan Freed promoted the popularity of African/American R&B music, calling it ‘rock and roll’. This time the name stuck.
Two key songs triggered the Rock & Roll era, ‘That’s All Right’ by Elvis Presley and ‘Rock Around The Clock’ by Bill Haley & His Comets, both recorded in 1954, the latter used in the film, ‘Blackboard Jungle (1955). The rest, as ‘they’ say, is history.
Several other American films portrayed the Rock & Roll zeitgeist including, ‘Concrete Jungle’ and Rock Around the Clock (1956). In addition, the film, ‘American Graffiti’ (1973) encapsulated the coming‑of‑age scene, set in 1962. Other films set about demonstrating the insubordinate side of youth culture during the 1950s including, ‘The Wild One’ (1951) and ‘Rebel Without a Cause’ (1955). All reflecting and, in turn, contributing to societal change.
On 3 February 1959, Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper were killed in a plane crash near Clear Lake, Iowa. The tragic event was nicknamed ‘The Day the Music Died’. After that seismic shock, Rock & Roll declined and other genres emerged such as Surf, Soul, Pop, Folk Revival, Garage Rock and Psychedelic Rock.
Dance styles inherited by Rock & Roll included east coast swing, west coast swing, the jive and the jitterbug. ‘New’ dances that came with Rock & Roll included the twist and the hand jive.
Rockabilly was a sub‑genre used to describe predominantly white singers adopting black vocal styles with lighter, often acoustic instrumentation including Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, Bill Haley, Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly.
Related genres: Jazz, Blues, Country, Folk, Gospel, Rhythm & Blues, Pop, Doo Wop, Surf, Skiffle, Rockabilly, Soul, Folk Revival, Garage Rock, Psychedelic Rock
Artist examples: Bill Haley and His Comets, Elvis Presley, Chubby Checker, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Little Richard, Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, Duane Eddy, Eddie Cochran, Ricky Nelson. Gene Vincent & His Bluecaps, Jackie Wilson, Pat Boone, Big Bopper, The Everly Brothers, Dion, Bobby Vee, Richie Valens, Del Shannon, The Platters, Lonnie Donegan, Buddy Holly, Cliff Richard, Connie Francis, The Coasters, Marty Wilde, Neil Sedaka, Billy Fury, Bert Weedon, Bobby Darin, Roy Orbison, The Ventures, Brian Hyland, Sam Cooke, The Shadows, The Drifters, Booker T & The MG’s, Gene Pitney, The Swinging Blue Jeans, the Chiffons, The Beach Boys, Tommy Steele
Soul (1960‑1982 – Peak 1968)
Soul is a music genre that originated in the African/American communities across the USA in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Its earliest roots lie in traditions associated with enslaved people working in the cotton fields. Soul’s formative influences lay in Gospel, Jazz and Rhythm & Blues and became popular as a form of lively dance music. Soul made good use of prominent horn and rhythm sections, accompanied by powerfully emotional vocal delivery. During the Civil Rights Movement era, predominantly black Soul artists were sought after and promoted by famous record labels such as Motown (Detroit), Stax (Memphis) and Atlantic (New York). Segregation issues firmly connected music with radical societal change. Soul therefore reflects and promotes the importance of African/American culture in the US at the time. Many Soul songs were about love and relationships while others focused on political black consciousness.
The Stax record label (‘Soulsville USA’) led the way in promoting multi‑racial music at a time of tension, protest and segregation. The Motown record label came to define the sub‑genre of Pop Soul. Soul dominated the US R&B singles chart in the 1960s, with many singles crossing over into American and British Pop charts. Song writers and producers such as Holland‑Dozier‑Holland made the ‘three minute’ Pop song such a positive and commercially successful phenomenon. Atlantic Records promoted and popularised Soul, signing up legendary artists like Aretha Franklin and Ray Charles.
As Soul began to decline by the end of the 1960s, it was superseded by Psychedelic Soul and Progressive Soul, then by Funk and, later on, by Disco. Soul, though, didn’t disappear, it diversified into regional variants of Soul that adapted to local geographical tastes, including Memphis Soul, New Orleans Soul, Chicago Soul and Philadelphia Soul, the latter becoming known as the ‘Philly Sound’.
A key performance platform for Soul artists was the American TV programme, ‘Soul Train’, which promoted many popular African/American Soul, Funk and Disco dance music acts. Soul Train aired for 35 years from 1971 to 2006 with an impressive total of 903 episodes. In 1985, there was a short‑lived UK version, also called Soul Train. Producers, artists and audiences alike made dancing an important part of the programme.
Dance styles associated with 1960s Soul include the Harlem shuffle, the boogaloo (NB. the dance, not the extremist political movement) and the perennial west coast swing.
During the 1970s, slick production and commercially‑oriented Pop saw so‑called Blue‑Eyed Soul (i.e. white) artists come to the fore in both the US and the UK. Another popular and enduring working class Soul trend from the UK is Northern Soul, along with the dance that went with it, stomping.
Contemporary R&B tended to take on the mantle of many Soul artists in the 1980s and thereafter. Soul saw another major rejuvenation in the 1990s with a sub‑genre called Neo‑Soul, which fused retro traditional Soul and Contemporary R&B with Hip‑Hop, making use of modern digital studio production techniques.
Related genres: Gospel, Motown, Rhythm & Blues, Jazz, Big Band, Contemporary R&B, Neo‑Soul, Hip‑Hop, Pop, Psychedelic Soul, Progressive Soul, Funk, Disco, Deep Soul, Southern Soul, Blue‑Eyed Soul, Pop Soul, Samba Soul, Memphis Soul, New Orleans Soul, Chicago Soul, Philadelphia Soul
Artist examples: Sly & the Family Stone, James Brown, Aretha Franklin, Ike & Tina Turner, Whitney Houston, Joe Tex, Three Degrees, The Jacksons, Otis Redding, Michael Jackson, Barry White, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye, Gladys Knight, Ray Charles, Diana Ross & The Supremes, Al Green, Hot Chocolate, Quincy Jones, Teddy Pendergrass, Isaac Hayes, Same & Dave, Lou Rawls, Gil Scott‑Heron, Smokey Robinson, Luther Vandross, Edwin Starr, Amii Stewart, Jimmy Ruffin, Lou Rawls, Curtis Mayfield, Labelle, The O’Jays, Martha Reeves & the Vandellas, Four Tops, The Temptations, Billy Preston, The Chi‑Lites, Sade, Thelma Houston, Ben E. King, Wilson Pickett, Ann Peebles, War, Hall & Oates
Funk (1968‑1988 – Peak 1976)
Funk is a dance music genre that originated in African/American communities in the mid‑late 1960s. Funk developed from Soul as well as Black R&B and Jazz influences. Musically, Funk refers to a style of aggressive urban dance music that rose to popularity, coinciding with the splintering of Soul.
The main focus of Funk musicians was to create a rhythmic, danceable musical style. The traditional elements of song writing, lyrical melody and standard chord progressions were replaced by a strong rhythmic groove provided by bass and percussion, giving tracks a hypnotic, danceable ‘feel’. Funk embraced many jazz traditions including the use of extended guitar chords, brass sections and intricate, syncopated drum patterns.
Funk, especially when performed live, makes extensive use of collective improvisation by jamming and ‘getting down with the groove’ based on strong basslines and groovy ‘chicken scratch’ guitar riffs. Funk created an insistent, locked‑in hook, on which dance moves were easily co‑ordinated. Rhythm was king. Percussion, often influenced by Afro‑Cuban styles plays a big part in creating and embellishing the groove, with an emphasis on the first beat of the bar (‘The One’), developed by James Brown (the ‘Godfather of Soul’) with his band The Famous Flames.
While Sly Stone introduced a psychedelic element to Funk, George Clinton and his bands Parliament and Funkadelic defined a whole sub‑genre called P‑Funk, which relied on psychedelic and whimsical elements with elaborate stage shows featuring extravagant otherworldly themes.
In the 1980s, Funk diversified and, like other forms of dance music, was heavily influenced by the use of analogue synthesizers, resulting in a sub‑genre known as Synth Funk. In the 1980s, the sexually expressive aspects of Funk were popularised by the likes of Rick James and Prince, attracting some notoriety. Funk heavily influenced Hip‑Hop, which often sampled Funk songs of the 1970s.
Dances associated with Funk include the robot, the funky chicken, tutting, popping & locking, the camel walk, the mashed potato and the good foot.
Pioneering instrumental records rooted in New Orleans R&B helped define the Deep Funk sub‑genre. Ghetto Funk is a modern take on the original Funk era of the late 1970s and early 1980s. Ghetto Funk fuses the rhythms of classic Funk with modern electronic beats and digital studio production. Like its ancestor, Ghetto Funk is about getting down and groovy, featuring funky basslines, soulful samples and an up‑beat, up‑tempo vibe. Ghetto funk artists combine retro funk samples with modern electronic beats, creating something that is both nostalgic while being fresh and contemporary. Funk remains a popular dance genre today.
Related genres: Soul, Psychedelic Soul, Afro Funk, Jazz Funk, P‑Funk, Synth Funk, Disco, Pop, Dance Pop, Rock, Metal, Acid Jazz, Ghetto Funk, Nu Funk, Funk Rock, Funktronica, Avant‑Funk, Funk Metal, Hip‑Hop, G‑Funk, New Orleans R&B, Deep Funk
Artist examples: Funkadelic, Parliament, George Clinton, Bootsy Collins, Rick James, Prince, Average White Band, Brand New Heavies, The Brothers Johnson, Cameo, Commodores, Curtis Mayfield, Miles Davis, Fat Larry’s Band, The Gap Band, Isaac Hayes, The Isley Brothers, The Meters, Tina Turner, Tower of Power, Mtume, Shakatak, Vulfpeck, War, Jamiroquai, Grace Jones, S.O.S. Band, Aaron Neville, Roy Ayres, Herbie Hancock, Fatback Band, Kool & The Gang, Earth Wind & Fire, Bruno Mars, Ohio Players
Disco (1975‑1989 – Peak 1979)
Disco is a dance music genre that emerged in inner‑city America in the late 1960s and the thriving, vibrant urban nightlife scene of New York City, particularly the borough of Brooklyn. Simultaneously, Disco was also flourished in Philadelphia. Disco’s sound is simpler than Funk, typified by four‑on‑the‑floor 4/4 time signatures providing a strong beat, syncopated basslines, lush string and horn sections, analogue synthesizers, and staccato rhythm guitars.
Disco is an abbreviation of Discothèque (NB. a French word meaning, ‘library of phonograph records’), which were the nightclub venues playing this new form of dance music. One such nightclub on Broadway in midtown Manhattan, NYC became (in)famous for its celebrity Disco scene, Studio 54, which opened in 1977 in a former theatre and opera house dating back to 1927.
Discothèques weren’t a new thing by the 1970s. The first discothèques mostly played swing music in the 1940s. In 1953 the ‘Whisky à Go‑Go’ in Paris, France incorporated a dance floor with coloured lights and two turntables so records could be played continuously without having a gap in the music. It wouldn’t be until the early 1970s that the modern Disco scene emerged from the underground to widespread mainstream success between 1974 and 1977.
Disco nightclubs used powerful, bass‑heavy, sound systems, which became a key component in the Disco club experience, as were disc jockeys (DJs) that seamlessly mixed the music for eager audiences. Fashion included sequined dresses for girls and bell‑bottom flares for boys. The iconic and ubiquitous mirror ball (or ‘disco ball’) is forever entwined with the Disco scene, usually mounted on the ceilings of Disco venues. NB. Mirror balls were not a new thing to 1970s’ discos; they were patented in 1917 and were widely used in nightclubs during the 1920s.
The Disco subculture of the 1970s experienced a significant drug problem, particularly ‘party’ drugs like cocaine (blow) amyl nitrite (poppers), amphetamines (speed) and Quaaludes (a hypnotic sedative known as ‘disco biscuits’).
Disco was seen as a reaction to, and a rejection of, west coast hippie counterculture and the prominence of blue collar American Rock music. It was also seen by some as a symbol of liberal permissive gay culture and a hotbed of recreational substance misuse.
The film, ‘Saturday Night Fever’ (1977) cemented Disco music, fashion and subculture into the public consciousness. This classic was supplemented by other major films, including ‘Car Wash’ (1976), ‘Xanadu’ (1980), ‘Can’t Stop the Music’ (1980) and ‘Flashdance’ (1983).
One of the key innovations of Disco was the pioneering use of the Disco remix and the 12″ single. These enabled DJs to experiment and create new tracks (or versions thereof) for nightclub use. Another innovation was the ‘white label’ record, which were records produced in very small numbers to test crowd response in dance clubs. The plain white label was used so that DJs would have no pre‑conceived ideas about the music or the artist name. White label recordings have since become highly popular with House and Hip‑Hop DJs. In the early 1990s, Techno and House artists created tracks pressed on 12″ white labels, which proved easy to sell at dance music record stores. Further innovations included the use of electronic drum machines and sequenced synthesizers.
Several dance styles became strongly associated with Disco, including the bump, the hustle, the Watergate, the disco dance, the YMCA, the snap and the bus stop. Disco also adopted the funky chicken from Soul.
Disco may have many similarities with Funk by focusing on the rhythm and beat to provide a strong basis for danceable music. However, when looking beneath the surface, they are very different animals. Funk relies on syncopation, improvisation and intricate rhythms. Disco is more straightforward but with the same aim – to get people onto the dance floor. Maybe Disco might not have emerged without Funk to provide the groovy foundation for dance music.
Euro Disco is a sub‑genre that emerged on the European continent following ABBA’s success at the Eurovision Song Contest in 1974. This fostered other sub‑genres such as Euro Pop and Eurodance.
One very strange and unique offspring of disco music was the roller disco, with ‘dancers’ wearing roller skates (quad or inline) and appropriate fashion styles, circulating a dance floor or ice skating rink to popular disco music. The peak of the short-lived roller disco craze was in the late 1970s. While the fad faded dramatically during the 1980s, roller disco perpetuates with occasional revivals and still has a small but fanatical following.
Disco declined as a major trend in popular music in the US following the infamous Disco Demolition Night held on 12 July 1979. Disco Demolition Night was a Major League Baseball (MLB) event held at Comiskey Park in Chicago, Illinois. At the climax of the event, sandwiched between a double‑header of matches between the Chicago White Sox and the Detroit Tigers MLB teams, a crate filled with disco records was blown up on the field. The event attended by around 50,000 people ended in a pitch invasion and a riot. Disco Demolition Night was a backlash from rock music fans and anti‑gay culture factions, led by Chicago ‘shock jock’ and anti‑disco campaigner Steve Dahl. The explosive highlight was accompanied by macho bigoted chants of ‘Disco Sucks’ and ‘Death to Disco’. In the aftermath of Disco Demolition Night, the popularity of Disco declined significantly in late 1979 and 1980, with record labels, stores and DJs preferring to use the generic label ‘dance music’. Disco’s demise and legacy led directly to the evolution of new forms of nightclub dance music such as House and Techno.
In an attempt to ditch Disco’s camp, cheesy image and to revive and rejuvenate its fortunes, Nu‑Disco emerged in the UK during the 1990s. Nu‑Disco is a modern take on 1970s and 1980s Disco, characterised by funky basslines, groovy rhythms, and slick digital studio production. Like its predecessor, Nu‑Disco is a genre that is intended to get people back on the dancefloor and bopping to a new generation of beats. During the 2020s, a modernised Disco sound has given a new generation of dance artists and fans a contemporary update on a classic dance genre, firmly rooted in modern club culture.
Disco still has a massive following and has seen several revivals over time during the 1990s, 2000s, 2010s and 2020s. It has also heavily influenced many dance music genres since the 1970s. It seems that Disco doesn’t suck and certainly isn’t dead.
Related genres: Soul, Funk, Pop Soul, Euro Disco, Eurodance, Post‑Disco, Nu‑Disco, House, Deep House, Techno, Post‑Punk, Rave, EDM, Boogie, Italo‑Disco, Hi‑NRG
Artist examples: The Bee Gees, Chic, The Jackson 5, The Trammps, Tavares, Heatwave, Imagination, Earth Wind & Fire, Kool & The Gang, Donna Summer, Gloria Gaynor, The Village People, Boney M, KC & The Sunshine Band, The Real Thing, Teena Marie, Tina Charles, Shalamar, Carl Douglas, Leif Garrett, Evelyn ‘Champagne’ King, Love Unlimited, Odyssey, Ottawan, The Real Thing, Rose Royce, Sister Sledge, Sylvester, Chaka Kahn, The Gap Band, Patrice Rushen, Indeep, Yvonne Elliman, Candi Staton, Lipps Inc, Anita Ward, Billy Ocean, George McRae, The Hues Corporation, Giorgio Moroder, Jesse Ware, Dua Lipa, Alcazar, George McCrae, Baccara, Frantique, The Crusaders
Pop (1959‑1991 – Peak 1967)
Pop in its widest sense is a broad umbrella term for anything and everything in popular music. Not all popular music is Pop. Pop, though, is popular music. Go figure. However, defining Pop as a genre is not straightforward. Even sources suggest that its meaning is different depending on time and place, although there is consensus that Pop as a commodity appeals to the broadest audience base. Pop had been around since the advent of radio and TV, covering many morphing genres and styles in the process. Pop was reinvented in the 1960s off the success of Rock & Roll and Soul. Some (erroneously) suggest that Pop and Rock from the 1960s as interchangeable.
Pop focuses on catchiness, melody, rhythm, lyrics, and hooks and is regarded as readily available and largely ephemeral (i.e. disposable). Many Pop records were good for dancing and many dance records were good for Pop. Win‑Win. Make no bones about it, Pop was and still is Big Business. Capitalist commercial interests drive Pop music, enabling mass production, marketing, distribution and accessibility. Measures of success were market sales and chart position. Key Pop song writers and producers in the UK included Stock Aitken & Waterman (SAW, a.k.a. The Hit Factory).
Standardised commercial Pop songs tended to be short, around the three‑minute mark, based around the traditional intro-verse-chorus-verse-chorus-break-chorus-outro structure. Numerous Pop songs were written by professional writers and played by studio session musicians, rather than the artists that fronted them. Manufactured boy bands and girl groups were typical creations of the Pop industry.
As Rock emerged from the mid‑1960s, Pop didn’t go away, being ever present on radio and TV, featuring playlists that cycled hit singles to sustain popular (and commercial) interest. By the late 1970s, the origin of Disco would push the boundaries of Pop and took dance music in a different direction. It wasn’t until the 1980s that Pop would come to the forefront of dance music again.
One of the key milestone sub‑genres of electronic dance music was Electro. Electro makes much use of drum machines such as the Roland TR‑808 and analogue synthesizers. Electro was, perhaps the most influential genre development in Pop music in the 1980s. Following the implosion of Punk c.1980 and the growth of New Wave, New Romantic and Post‑Punk music, Synth Pop rapidly became dominant, eagerly announcing ‘death of guitar music’. Electro made full use of music technology and music videos took the MTV crowd by storm.
Another key sub‑genre of Pop is Synth Pop. It was a style of Pop that emerged in the 1980s, features catchy melodies, electronic instrumentation, and a strong Pop sensibility. Synth Pop combines the warmth of analogue synthesizers with infectious, memorable hooks. Synth‑Pop artists mix electronic beats with melodic lyrics, creating tracks that are both danceable, listenable and unforgettable.
Synth Pop would be reinvented for the 21st Century with the retro‑inspired Synthwave sub‑genre that pays nostalgic homage to the retro music of the 1980s. It is characterised by analogue synths, ‘ear worm’ melodies and a forward looking yet vintage vibe.
Popular music dances include the Macarena (thanks Los Del Rio!), The hokey pokey (hokey cokey in the UK – thanks Larry LaPrise!), the cha‑cha slide, the locomotion, the tootsee roll, the time warp (from ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ film) and the peppermint twist.
Related genres: New Wave, New Romantic, Post‑Punk, Dance Pop, Europop, Eurodance, Synth Pop, Synthwave, J‑Pop, K‑Pop, Krautrock, Future Bass, Electro, Teen Pop
Artist examples: The Beatles, Abba, Pet Shop Boys, Kylie Minogue, Bananarama, Beats International, Mel & Kim, Daft Punk, Deee‑Lite, Jennifer Lopez, Lady Gaga, The Pussycat Dolls, Michael Jackson, Janet Jackson, Grace Jones, Madonna, Christina Aguilera, Rihanna, Beyoncé, Gloria Estefan, Billy Ocean, Hot Chocolate, Heaven 17, Thompson Twins, Erasure, Eurythmics, Boney M, 2 Unlimited, Ace of Base, Robyn, Black Box, Aqua, Roxette, Technotronic, Whigfield, Vengaboys, Dead or Alive, Paul Hardcastle, Scissor Sisters, Basshunter, Shakira, The S.O.S. Band, Billie Eilish, Charli XCX, Bomb the Bass, N‑Sync, Backstreet Boys, Destiny’s Child, Spice Girls, Boyz II Men, Jessie Ware, Dua Lipa, Drake, Ariana Grande, Olivia Rodrigo, BTS, Pitbull, early Depeche Mode, Kraftwerk, Gary Numan, Boyzone, Take That, Taylor Swift, Adele, Ed Sheeran, Katy Perry, Miley Cyrus, Justin Bieber, Lorde, Prince, Pink
Club Music (1975‑today – Peaks, 1995 & 2024)
Club Music, perhaps, represents the quintessential modern dance music and deservedly so. It is the place where innovation in dance music has been most prominent and prolific in recent times. The cultural significance of ‘clubbing’ is truly massive. The vibrant cornerstone of dance music culture has been massively popular for decades now. While Club Music as an ‘umbrella’ term that covers much of the same ground as EDM (see below), there is a great deal of convergence and overlap, such that the boundaries are blurred almost to non‑existence at times.
While it might seem strange that major dance music genres like House, Techno and Trance don’t feature as headings in their own right, they have been grouped together here because these genres drove the nightclub scene for several decades. Can you imagine a great underground or glitzy nightclub without these three genres being a crucial element of the music? Can you imagine what it would be like to have these three genres being successful without the existence of groovy nightclubs? The answer (at least to the author, who spent a great deal of time seeking out cool nightclubs in the UK and Ibiza from the 1980s to the 2000s) is that there is a vital co‑dependency between nightclubs and club dance music.
Some specific dance styles arose in the nightclub scene, including the Vogue, which also hit TV screens via MTV playlists. While there are some dances associated with genres from this point on, a great deal of modern social dance from the 1980s onwards may best be described as ‘freestyle’ or ‘freeform’, i.e. doing whatever one feels like to the music being played in the moment. No rules, no boundaries, no limits, just get down on the dancefloor and move to the groove.
House music is a highly influential dance music genre deeply rooted in Chicago during the early 1980s. House evolved from Disco and is based on electronic beats with infectious rhythms, strong basslines and soulful melodies, set to an insistent ‘four‑on‑the‑floor’ 4/4 time signature and a beat of around 115‑135BPM with a common standard of 128BPM.
Born from underground clubs, the name is thought to come from ‘The Warehouse’ nightclub in Chicago where DJ Frankie Knuckles (‘The Godfather of House’) performed DJ sets. House incorporates elements from Pop, Disco, Funk, and Soul and hit the mainstream around 1986.
While many dance moves were inherited from Disco, notable dances associated with House music include jacking, footwork, house stepping and lofting.
Key sub‑genres of House include Deep House and Progressive House, both intended to take the listener on a musical journey. Deep House is a key sub‑genre of House characterised by its chilled, soulful vibes, often featuring warm basslines, jazzy chords and soothing vocals that encourage listeners to groove and relax. Progressive House is known for its melodic and gradual build‑ups and euphoric drops.
Tech House is a logical amalgam of, erm… Techno and House from the late 1980s onwards. Tech House bridges the gap between the active dancefloor and passive listening. Other notable fusion sub‑genres of House include Ambient House and Electro‑House
In the late 1980s, House heavily influenced the formation of Balearic Beat that became SO popular in Ibiza Island dance clubs, super clubs, lounge bars and the underground Rave scene in the UK.
Bass House influenced the emergence of Dubstep and inspired the wave of Electropop artists in the 2000s, as well as many other forms of EDM in the 2010s and 2020s.
Techno is a genre of electronic dance music that emerged in Detroit in the late 1980s influenced by rising interest in House and Electro. Techno is characterised by repetitive (some say relentless) beats and hypnotic futuristic vibes that range from deep and atmospheric, through challengingly complex to fast and pounding. Typical Techno tempos are c.120‑160BPM. Unlike House, Techno has a more mechanical and ‘cold’ sound, embracing synthetic sound design and a robotic rhythmic style. Techno is an experience, designed to make you lose yourself on the dance floor. Techno soon spread from the USA to the nightclubs of the UK and Europe.
Dances associated with Techno have an international feel including, hakken, jumpstyle, Melbourne shuffle, vogue and tektonik.
A sub‑genre of Techno is Minimal Techno, known for its stripped‑down, repetitive rhythms and emphasis on mood changes. Minimal Techno is all about, erm… minimalism and creating an enthralling dancefloor atmosphere through simplicity and groove.
When it comes to post‑club parties, Ambient Techno was the ideal comedown, fusing the hypnotic quality of Techno and the more soothing Ambient music. At the other end of the spectrum, up‑beat Techno went on to influence Rave and Future Rave.
Trance music developed in Berlin, Germany in the early 1990s and became particularly popular in the UK, Belgium and the Netherlands. Trance is known for its uplifting melodies, ethereal breakdowns and energetic beats. Trance – as the name suggests – is intended to transport listeners to euphoric, hypnotic and transcendent states, making Trance a favourite at festivals and underground raves before hitting the mainstream. Trance endured into the 2000s with the proliferation of sub‑genres, thereby diluting the original. During the 2010s, Trance declined significantly with the dominance of EDM.
Trance made heavy use of the Roland TR‑909 drum machine (introduced in 1983 as a successor to the TR‑808) and analogue synthesizers. Tempo was relatively fast, around 130‑160BPM. Trance was heavily influenced by House and Techno before it became ‘a thing’ on its own.
The genre (Trance) and the venue (raves) are often linked to the widespread use of the drug MDMA, better known as ecstasy (tablet) or molly (crystals), a psychoactive empathogen which reinforces the hypnotic effect of Trance music and creates a (false) state of rapture and emotional social communion. Psychedelic forms of Trance became hugely popular in dance club destinations such as Ibiza (Ibiza Trance) and Goa in India (Goa Trance).
Dance moves associated with Trance include the trance stomp, the galactic glide, the melodic spiral and the echoing echoes. All sound suitably psychedelic.
Trance varied in sub‑genre, with Dream Trance, Uplifting Trance and Euro Trance, while more extreme sub‑genres of Trance include Tech Trance and Hardstyle.
Another staple of Club Music is Garage, a sub‑genre that originated in Britain in the form of UK Garage, influenced by Contemporary R&B and Hip‑Hop. Garage is characterised by its 2‑step beats, soulful vocals, and smooth, danceable rhythms and Garage House became popular in clubs. In turn, Future Garage and UK Bass took the form into the 2000s. UK Garage also became influential in the development of Dubstep and Grime.
The Juke (a.k.a. Chicago Juke or Footwork) sub‑genre arose in Chicago in the late 1990s is associated with dance battles and showcases dancers’ impressive footwork (duh!) skills. The tempo of Juke is fast, at c.160BPM.
At the height of the dance boom, music was heavily promoted by club and radio DJs who made themselves household names, including (amongst SO many others) Pete Tong, Calvin Harris, Carl Cox, Danny Rampling, David Guetta, David Morales, John Digweed, Eric Prydz, Erick Morillo, Fatboy Slim, Ferry Corsten, Frankie Knuckles, Judge Jules, Paul Oakenfold, Paul van Dyk, Roger Sanchez, Richie Hawtin, Sasha, Sven Väth, Tiësto, Tony De Vit and Robert Miles. Without the turntable skills of experienced club DJs, dance music would not have had the success it has had over several decades. Several top DJs also dipped their toes in music writing and recording.
The popularity of club music decreased significantly from the mid‑2000s with a lack of innovation and a malaise of interest from audiences. This sense of ennui led to the rise of EDM as a saviour of club dance music from the 2010s onwards.
Artist examples: Soul II Soul, Frankie Knuckles, Madonna, Faithless, Inner City, Robin S, Bob Sinclar, Sasha, Jeff Mills, Goldfrapp, Sunscreem, C+C Music Factory/Clivilles & Cole, Tiësto, Reel To Real, Sash!, Carl Cox, Paul Oakenfold, Todd Terry, UNKLE, Felix Da Housecat, X‑Press 2, Eric Prydz, Deep Dish, Basement Jaxx, Roger Sanchez, Artful Dodger, Gorgon City, Deadmau5, Camelphat, David Guetta, Calvin Harris, M People, K‑klass, Moby, Ian Van Dahl, David Morales, Ultra Nate, Kosheen, Fatboy Slim, Snap!, Apollo 440, Coldcut, Audio Bullys, Bodyrockers, Seb Fontaine, Technotronic, Katy B, Jeff Mills, Charlotte de Witt, Craig David, Artful Dodger, MJ Cole, Underworld, Louie Vega
Dancehall (1979‑1999 & 2010‑2020 – Peaks 1983 & 2013)
Dancehall is Jamaican music that evolved from Reggae and Deejay in the late 1970s and early 1980s. While Reggae‑derived dance music may seem out of place here, don’t rule out the influential Jamaican vibe so summarily.
Dancehall was stripped down Reggae with a focus on Deejay (rapped) vocals over pre‑recorded electronic rhythm tracks, rather than live backing musicians. Another difference from the political and Rastafarian themes of Roots Reggae is that Dancehall used sexually explicit lyrics (‘slackness’), misogyny and violent themes attracting negative criticism and notoriety. Dancehall has a wide variety of tempos; most sitting around 80‑120BPM with a DJ standard around 102BPM.
Dancehall changed radically in the mid‑1980s when producers increasingly employed new digital studio techniques, a sub‑genre known as Digital Dancehall emerged. Long before Hip‑Hop made the practice commonplace, Dancehall regularly sampled earlier genre tracks. In the early 1990s, Dancehall developed a more aggressive and less melodic style called Ragga. The style and content of Jamaican Dancehall and Ragga heavily influenced early American Rap, Hip‑Hop and Contemporary R&B, as well as Dubstep.
Dances associated with Dancehall include, the skank (a traditional reggae move), the bogle, the butterfly, willie bounce (?!) and the gully creepa.
Another sub‑genre of Reggae and Dancehall is Reggaeton, a genre that originated in Puerto Rico in the 1990s. Reggaeton fuses reggae and Latin rhythms with Hip‑Hop and electronica. Reggaeton is characterised by its infectious beats, catchy hooks and often explicit lyrics.
Related genres: Ska, Rocksteady, Reggae, Roots, Deejay, Ragga, Digital Dancehall, Nu Reggae, Soca, Rap, Hip‑Hop, Dubstep, Reggaeton, Contemporary R&B, Dub
Artist examples: Sizzla, Buju Banton, Sean Paul, Bounty Killer, Ini Kamoze, Barrington Levy, Cllint Eastwood, Ranking Joe, Tapper Zukie, Dillinger, Trinity, The Lone Ranger, Shabba Ranks, Eek‑A‑Mouse, Yellowman, Shaggy, General Levy, King Jammy, Ninjaman, Frankie Paul, Bobby Digital, General Saint, Cocoa Tea, Chaka Demus
Hip‑Hop (1979‑today – Peaks 1993, 1999 & 2022)
Hip‑Hop (with or without the hyphen) as a subculture and art movement has its roots in in block parties of African/American communities of New York City, particularly The Bronx c.1973. Originally, it was known as Rap and then Disco Rap, but the broader term Hip‑Hop has become the de facto title for the genre. Hip‑Hop is known for its bare bones rhythmic beat patterns and poetic spoken vocal delivery rather than strong melodies and sung vocals. Most Hip‑Hop tempos vary around the 80‑115BPM mark.
Much of Hip‑Hop’s roots can be traced back to Jamaican Reggae and its Deejay, Dancehall and Ragga sub‑genres. Hip‑Hop also adopted Soul, Disco and Funk samples to enhance the genre’s appeal in predominantly black urban communities. Hip‑Hop subculture revolved around a number of key characteristics; MCing/rapping, DJing/turntable scratching, breakdancing and graffiti/street art. Other characteristics emerged such as Beatboxing and Instrumental Hip‑Hop (minus rapping).
Hip‑Hop expanded rapidly during the 1980s migrating from New York and Boston across the continent breaking through into commercial success in the process. Once Hip‑Hop reached the West Coast of the US, particularly Los Angeles, the gang‑related, anti‑authority and violent themes of Gangsta Rap quickly gained popularity c.1988 and became seen as a reaction to, and rejection of, the east coast’s Hardcore Hip‑Hop. Despite Gangsta Rap’s reputation of glorifying guns, violence, sexual exploitation and drug‑use, it continued to gain popularity in the harsh life experiences of deprived black urban communities. Several high profile murders of Hip Hop artists plagued the 1990s, including Tupac Shakur and The Notorious B.I.G. (a.k.a. Biggie Smalls).
A sub‑genre of Gansta Rap, G‑Funk emerged in the 1990s and adopted a less aggressive, less confrontational posture. G‑Funk spread across the mid‑west and southern states, increasing Hip‑Hop’s popularity with both black and white audiences. Hip‑Hop continued to diversify into Crunk, Snap and Trap, becoming less political and more nihilistic in the process. Going full circle, there was a re‑emergence of New York Hip‑Hop around 1994. Hip‑Hop became mainstream and in‑turn influenced the genres that had influenced it, including commercial Pop. Hip‑Hop has expanded to include Urban (a.k.a. Urban Contemporary Music), Contemporary R&B and Instrumental Hip‑Hop.
The key street dance style associated with early rap and Hip‑Hop was breakdancing. Breakdancing has grown significantly in popularity from its roots as an American street art performance to being an international sport at the Olympic Games. Called just ‘breaking’, the dance/sport made its debut at Paris 2024.
In addition to breaking, other dances associated with Rap and Hip‑Hop include popping & locking, krumping, jerkin’ and tutting.
Related genres: Reggae, Deejay, Dancehall, Urban, Gangsta Rap, Experimental Hip‑Hop, Instrumental Hip‑Hop, Trip Hop, Hardcore Hip‑Hop, G‑Funk, Nu Metal, Crunk, Snap, Trap, Drill, Techno, House, Deep House, Trance, Electro Disco, Progressive Electronic, UK Garage, Glitch Hop, Rap, Disco Rap, Pop Rap, Beatboxing, Southern Hip‑Hop
Artist examples: Grandmaster Flash & The Furious Five, The Sugarhill Gang, The Beastie Boys, Run‑DMC, Dr Dre, Usher, Eminem, LL Cool J, 2Pac (Tupac Shakur), Nelly, Fun Lovin’ Criminals, Beyoncé, House of Pain, Coolio, A Tribe Called Quest, Kelis, Neneh Cherry, Cypress Hill, D12, Busta Rhymes, Tone Loc, Bubba Sparxxx, The Black Eyed Peas, N.W.A., Snoop Dogg, The Notorious B.I.G. (Biggie Smalls), Will Smith, DJ Jazzy Jeff & the Fresh Prince, Naughty by Nature, Public Enemy, Ice Cube, Ice‑T, Kendrick Lamar, Nas, Wu‑Tang Clan, Kanye West, DJ Shadow, K7, Jay‑Z, The Streets, Missy Elliott, 50 Cent, MC Hammer, OutKast
Rave (1986‑1994 – Peak 1988)
The term rave in connection with dance music has a long history, being used to describe wild beatnik parties in the 1950s and Mod parties in the 1960s. Party animals became known as ‘ravers’. For many, the Rave dance music scene was the most important paradigm shift in youth counter‑culture since Punk in the mid‑late 1970s.
During the 1980s, for some, discos, nightclubs and popular Club Music were not enough. In the mid‑late 1980s, psychedelic dance music originated in Acid House music parties in Chicago, USA. Word spread quickly and Acid House caught on in UK clubs, warehouses, private and free parties. As the genre name Acid House implies, the music was often associated with recreational drug use. Raves began in Manchester, England (nicknamed ‘Madchester’ in context) and then later in and around London (generally inside the M25 orbital motorway). The iconic Haçienda nightclub in Manchester was opened by the Post‑Punk band New Order and Factory Records. A film, ’24 Hour Party People’ (2002) portrayed the chaotic Madchester scene. Further films aimed to capture the essence of the rave phenomenon and its recreational drug frenzy including, ‘Go’ and ‘Human Traffic’ (both 1999).
Non‑standard Rave venues included homes, warehouses, industrial estates, basements and outdoors in forests. In the late 1980s, the word ‘rave’ was adopted to describe the underground subculture that grew out of the Acid House movement. Rave also became associated with psychedelic Rave parties held in Ibiza. Rave became massive, varying in size from a few thousand up to mainstream events as large as 25,000. Underground, i.e. illegal, Raves were the subject of much media hype, political rhetoric and heavy‑handed police crackdowns. Such hysteria led to a heightened awareness of, and attraction to, rave events for predominantly young, socially excluded anti‑establishment adherents willing to take risks with the law. Illegal rave venues were kept secret in an attempt to avoid police attention. Rave music became popular on UK pirate radio stations in the 1990s, adding to the mystique.
Rave isn’t a genre with a definable sound of its own; it represents more of a pleasure‑seeking, indulgent lifestyle with widespread use of recreational and hard drugs. It is more of an umbrella term for a range of dance music genres popular at Rave events. Music featured at Raves included Acid House, Breakbeat Hardcore, Happy Hardcore, Drum & Bass, Post‑Industrial, Breakbeat and Electronica. Rave‑oriented tracks were mid‑tempo, generally around 130‑140BPM.
Acid House, born in the mid‑late 1980s, is known for its sound created by the iconic Roland TB‑303 synthesizer. Acid House is closely related to the early Rave scene and is characterised by its propulsive 4/4 time signature and psychedelic aesthetic. The familiar ‘smiley face’ emblem became an iconic part of the Rave and Acid House scene of the late 1980s.
[Image: Acid House Smiley Face]
Dances associated with Rave include, running man, jump style, apple picking, liquid move, the stomp, glowsticking and gloving.
Rave strongly influenced sub‑genres such as Big Beat and Breakbeat, with their strong, heavy beats and complex and dynamic electronic drum rhythms, which combines EDM with Funk, Rock and Hip‑Hop. In turn, Big Beat and Breakbeat have been highly influential in the development of EDM. Rave’s diverse range of dance genres inspire high‑energy dance styles known for their hedonistic, exuberant, in‑your‑face sound and dynamic arrangements. Rave and its subculture live on, with a wide range of organised Rave festivals in many countries across the globe, far beyond its humble origins.
An off‑beat genre that was closely associated with the post‑club comedown parties was Trip Hop, which developed in Bristol, England with bands like Portishead, Massive Attack and Tricky making big waves from the late 1980s and early 1990s. Trip Hop is an experimental variant of Breakbeat, incorporating influences from Jazz, Soul, Funk, Reggae, Dub and Hip‑Hop. Trip Hop heavily influenced the growth of Intelligent Dance Music (IDM).
Related genres: Post‑Punk, Neo‑Psychedelia, Acid House, Acid Techno, Alternative Dance, Big Beat, Breakbeat, House, Electro, Hardcore Techno, Industrial Dance, Drum & Bass, Trance, Acid Trance, Dubstep, Balearic Beat, Deep House, Chillout, Downtempo, Nu‑Skool Breaks, Future Rave, Funk, Rock, Hip‑Hop, EDM, Breakbeat Hardcore, Happy Hardcore, Post‑Industrial, Trip Hop, Dub, IDM
Artist examples: The Shamen, The Prodigy, The Chemical Brothers, Orbital, Underworld, Happy Mondays, Primal Scream, Fatboy Slim, Infected Mushroom, Eat Static, Groove Armada, The KLF, Death In Vegas, Humanoid, A Guy Called Gerald, Shpongle, Stereo MC’s, Utah Saints, 808 State, Leftfield, All Saints, New Order, Altern‑8, Bassheads, Praga Kahn, Pete Heller, Martina Topley‑Bird, Portishead, Massive Attack, Tricky, Sneaker Pimps, Björk, Coldcut, Hallucinogen
Drum & Bass (1993‑1999 & 2020‑today – Peak 1994)
Drum & Bass, or just D&B to its many admirers, is known for its fast‑paced breakbeats, rolling basslines, and intricate electronic drum patterns. D&B combines elements of Acid House, Techno, Breakbeat and Hip‑Hop of the early 1990s, resulting in a high‑energy intense dance music experience. The up‑tempo nature of D&B regularly reaches 160‑180BPM or more. The DJ standard for D&B is a heady 174BPM. The fast tempo required D&B dancers to exhibit great stamina, frequently aided by drug use. D&B has experienced a number of peaks and troughs of popularity over time. D&B went on to influence the development of Dubstep and IDM.
Dances associated with D&B include, x‑outing and skank stepping.
While not strictly D&B, but bearing some similarities to it, Jungle, with its origins in the UK, is a high‑energy genre known for its fast‑paced breakbeats, heavy basslines, and reggae influences.
Neurofunk is a sub‑genre of D&B that emerged in the mid‑1990s, known for its complex, futuristic and experimental sound. Neurofunk introduced a unique approach to the genre, characterised by intricate basslines, glitchy studio effects and a darker atmosphere. Other related sub‑genres include Hardcore and Liquid Drum & Bass.
Artist examples: Everything but the Girl, Chase & Status, Pendulum, Machinedrum, Sub Focus, Finley Quaye, Squarepusher, Amon Tobin, Goldie, Roni Size
Alternative Dance (1985‑2010 – Peak 1991)
Alternative Dance (a.k.a. Indie Dance or Underground Dance) is a broad catch‑all for dance‑inspired music by artists generally not associated with a defined dance music genre. Alternative Dance frequently but not exclusively incorporates synthesizer‑based rhythms derived from dance music within the context of Alternative Rock and other related genres. Alternative Dance first developed in Manchester in the UK during the early 1980s Post‑Punk movement with bands like New Order mixing Synthpop and Electro‑Disco. Alternative Dance, under the guise of Post‑Disco, was increasingly popular during the 1990s.
You may not immediately connect genres such as Indie, Grunge, Alternative Rock and Hard Rock with dance music. However, many Rock et al bands have embraced the groovy, foot‑tapping nature of dance music and incorporated influences into their own fusion‑style music that can be eminently danceable. In turn, many dance artists have sampled or collaborated with Rock et al artists to produce club‑friendly versions of classic rock tracks. This cross‑pollination has proved fertile ground for those involved and has created some interesting dance‑oriented versions of otherwise un‑danceable tracks.
Various dance forms have been associated with the genres that fit under the label Alternative Dance include, the shoegaze shuffle, the synthpop sway, the new wave nod, the trip hop trip, the Manchester wiggle and the Björk bounce.
Related genres: Alternative Rock, Grunge, Indie, Neo‑Psychedelia, Acid Jazz, Indietronica, EDM, Synthpop, Electro Disco, Post‑Punk, Shoegaze, Acid House, Nu Rave, Synthwave, Darkwave, Ethereal wave, EBM (Electronic Body Music), Hip‑Hop, Trip Hop, Instrumental Hip‑Hop, Psychedelic Trance
Artist examples: New Order, Primal Scream, Happy Mondays, Galliano, The Brand New Heavies, Morcheeba, Red Hot Chili Peppers, White Lies, The Hurts, Dynamic Syncopation, 9 Lazy 9, Mr Scruff, Amon Tobin, DJ Vadim, The Irresistible Force, Kid Koala, Coldcut, Luke Vibert, Fink, Funki Porcini, DJ Food, Hexstatic, The Cinematic Orchestra, Ashley Beedle, The Herbaliser, Jaga Jazzist, Caribou, LCD Soundsystem, Young Fathers, Manitoba, Broadcast, The xx, Saint Etienne, Jesus Jones, Hot Chip, Holy Fuck, M83, Tom Vek, Public Service Broadcasting, Reverend And the Makers, Big Audio Dynamite, Sugarcubes, Crystal Castles, Dubstar, Space, Howie B, Björk, Amorphous Androgynous
Balearic Beat (1986‑1994 & 2006‑2023 – Peaks 1990 & 2014)
Geographically, Balearic refers to a chain of islands in the Mediterranean off the east coast of Spain, home to Ibiza Island, one of the dance capitals of the world. The origins of Balearic Beat date back to a time when English DJs vacationing in Ibiza made use of their skills at parties, which became increasingly popular, particularly with holidaying celebrities. This trend then spread to tourists visiting the White Island to experience sun, sea, sand, sex, drugs and dancing. Balearic Beat has come to represent a dancefloor influenced sound conjuring up images of the warm sunsets and sunrises of Mediterranean beaches – and the hedonistic, drug‑fuelled dance parties that took place between dusk and dawn. Drug use is commonplace in Balearic dance music culture, including MDMA, amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine, LSD and ketamine.
The word Balearic here is used as an umbrella term for a wide range of Mediterranean vital vibe venues including Ibiza (and Formentera) and beyond. Other ‘Med’ (in more ways than one!) party destinations include Mykonos (Greece) and Magaluf (Majorca, Spain). These clubbing alternatives are largely regarded as second rate Ibiza wannabes. The scope does, by loose association, include other clubbing travel destinations outside the Mediterranean such as Goa (India) and Playa de las Américas (Tenerife). It is a bit of a tenuous link but it is used here for expediency.
Balearic Beat covers a range of music genres and is characterised by its relaxed atmosphere, laid back beats and R&B influenced swingy percussion, with its slow and heavy tempo at around 90‑110BPM. Influences include African Music, Hispanic American Music, Italo‑Disco, Eurodance, Soul, Funk, Reggae, Ambient, Downtempo, Chillout and Dub.
Ibiza Island led the way with its range of top notch, trendy nightclubs such as Pacha, Space, Amnesia, Privilege, Es Paradis, Eden, DC10, Octan, Underground and Swag. More recent is the emergence of Ibiza Super Clubs such as Hï, Ushuaïa, Lío, Cova Santa and Ocean Beach Club. The author’s favourite was Amnesia.
Ibiza lounge parties were the norm from the late 1980s and 1990s at the likes of Café del Mar, Café Mambo and Kumharas, all on the San Antonio Bay sea front. Venues in the island’s interior included Bambuddha Grove and KM5 up to the 2000s. After a decade of decline, Ibiza has seen a resurgence in the late 2010s and early 2020s with a rejuvenated EDM scene.
There aren’t specific dances that go along with the Balearic Beat, so freestyle is a common way of enjoying the island grooves. However, shuffling, swaying & twirling, and moves inspired by Latin dances such as salsa and samba fit the bill.
Goa Trance is characterised by hypnotic beats, ethereal melodies and a psychedelic atmosphere. Originating from Goa, India, Goa Trance gained global popularity for its mind‑expanding sound. Goa Trance often incorporates cultural and spiritual elements, intended to create a transcendent experience for listeners, often assisted by use of mind‑altering psychedelic/hallucinogenic drugs like LSD (acid), mescaline (peyote), psilocybin (shrooms) and DMT (dimethyltryptamine – the so‑called ‘God molecule’) to create altered states of consciousness.
A sub‑genre deeply connected to the heady Goa Trance scene is Psytrance, with its hypnotic beats, intricate soundscapes, and psychedelic influences. Psytrance immerses listeners in euphoric, transcendent otherworldly journeys.
Another Goa sub‑genre is Psybient, which is a fusion of psychedelic and ambient music. Psybient is characterised by its dreamy and otherworldly soundscapes and intended to immerse listeners in sonic voyages, often inspired by nature, local culture and psychedelia. Psybient became a favourite in club chillout spaces and festivals for relaxation and introspection. A popular close relative of Psybient is Ambient Dub for chilling out.
Downtempo (a.k.a. Downbeat) and its close relative Chillout are genres that emphasise slower tempos (around 60‑110BPM), relaxed beats, laidback vibes, atmospheric soundscapes and soothing melodies, often without a discernible beat.
Downtempo and Chillout are often used interchangeably and, to be honest, there is not a great deal to distinguish them other than perhaps their degree of rhythm and/or beat. Downtempo actually means ‘slow beat’. They are both used as broad terms for contemporary ‘easy listening’, which isn’t exactly helpful. Influences include, Ambient, Reggae, Electronica, Jazz, New Age and World music. Many admirers use Ambient Dub for meditation and mindfulness.
Chillout is a term derived from the ‘White Room’ at the Heaven nightclub in London in 1989 where DJs played Ambient and Ambient House music as a place to chill out or relax from the more intense tempos of the main dancefloor. These dedicated breakout areas became known as ‘chillout rooms’. Chillout is also often used in lounge bar settings and as background music. Due to market saturation, Ambient House declined in popularity during the early 2000s but has seen a big resurgence in the Covid‑hit 2020s.
Downtempo and Chillout encompass various dance music subgenres, including Trip Hop, Ambient House, Lo Fi Hip‑Hop, Psybient, Chillwave, Ambient Dub, Reggae, Nu Jazz and Ambient.
Related genres: Hip‑Hop, Trip Hop, Instrumental Hip‑Hop, EDM, Dub, Ambient Dub, Ambient Electronica, Ambient House, Ambient Techno, Ambient Trance, Progressive Electronic, Deep House, Nu Jazz, Breakbeat, Psybient, Chillwave, Lo‑Fi Hip‑Hop, Balearic Beat, Electronica, Jazz, Rock, New Age, World, Reggae, Ambient, Vaporwave
Artist examples: Massive Attack, Portishead, Tricky, Aphex Twin, The KLF, Fishmans, Thievery Corporation, Bonobo, Boards of Canada, Mr Scruff, Tycho, Nightmares on Wax, Ibizarre, Moloko, Innocence, Royksopp, London Grammar, The Beloved, St Germain, Air, Zero 7, The Orb, Smoke City, The Art of Noise, William Orbit, Helios, The Future Sound of London, Dirty Vegas, Bicep, Deadbeat, Jon Hopkins, Brian Eno, Moby, Sofa Surfers, The Dining Rooms
Dubstep (2006‑2020 – Peak 2012)
Dubstep is a dance music genre that originated in London, UK in the early‑mid 2000s. Dubstep is characterised by its sparse beats, heavy basslines, syncopated rhythms, and explosive drops, making great use of synthesizers to create its epic soundscape. Dubstep fuses elements of Reggae, Hip‑Hop and Rock with dance music beats, creating a powerful and often aggressive sound.
Dubstep has its roots in Dancehall’s beats, Drum & Bass’s drops and in Dub’s digital studio effects. For a dance music genre, Dubstep tempo has a relatively slow 70‑100BPM, making use of ‘half‑time’ rhythms, a characteristic of the genre. Dubstep is often closely associated with Grime, which appeared at around the same time with a faster tempo of around 140BPM.
Dance moves associated with Dubstep include, the wobble shuffle, the bass drop stomp, the rewind spin and the drop & flutter.
Just as Downtempo and Chillout stemmed from Balearic night clubs, bars and lounges, a sub‑genre of Dubstep is Chillstep, which emphasises melodic and slow ambient elements. Chillstep is known for its calming and ethereal sound, often incorporating female vocals. Like Downtempo, Chillstep is ideal for unwinding and relaxation.
Future Bass, with its lush emotional melodies is a sub‑genre that became prominent in the 2010s. While it is influenced by Dubstep and Trap, it adopts a warmer, less abrasive style that made an important connection between Pop and EDM.
Future Garage is a dark, minimalistic sub‑genre pioneered by Burial that combines elements of Garage, Dubstep, and House. It’s characterised by its sparse intricate rhythms, sampled vocals, and a highly atmospheric vibe. Another derivative of Dubstep is UK Bass with influences from IDM, Footwork and Techno.
While Dubstep and its derivatives remained popular into the 2010s, it has largely returned to its underground roots.
Related genres: EDM, Drum & Bass, UK Bass, UK Garage, Future Bass, Future Garage, Grime, Breakstep, Electro House, House, Brostep, Chillstep, Reggae, Trip Hop, Hip‑Hop, Rock, Dancehall, Dub, Trap, IDM, Footwork, Techno, 2‑Step
Artist examples: Burial, Skrillex, Katy B, Sub Focus, James Blake, Labrinth, Magnetic Man, Modestep, Excision, SBTRKT, Skream, Kode9, DMZ
EDM (1980‑1989 & 2010‑today – Peaks 1995, 2010 & 2023)
It is hard to believe but it was way, way back in 1980 that English musician, singer/songwriter and record producer Richard James Burgess, a member of the jazz/rock band Landscape, coined the term Electronic Dance Music, a.k.a. EDM.
The term EDM, though, didn’t really come into its own until its boom in the 2010s. Prior to that, it was a loose description of music that was, erm… electronic and danceable. Duh! Today, EDM has attempted to corral and coalesce a wide range of dance music genres into some broad categorisation. Prior to the 2010s, dance music was associated with discrete genres and sub‑genres. Post‑2010, EDM has attempted to become the main descriptor and exemplar of everything electronic dance. As such, it is arguably not a genre in its own right. However, keen‑eyed readers will also have noticed that other groupings described here, like Pop, Club Music, Rave and Balearic Beat are similar in the way they try to bring separate genres and sub‑genres together under broader, more meaningful headings.
EDM’s roots lie in the second half of the 1970s when Electro Synth Pop and Hi‑NRG arose in the wake of traditional dance genres like Soul, Funk and Disco. MTV was a prime catalyst for surge of interest in early EDM. House and Techno took on the mantle in the 1980s with the widespread adoption of digital technology and the crucial adoption of the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) industry standard communication and control protocol for electronic musical instruments.
The next step in the EDM journey was with Trance and Eurodance. With the advent of the Internet, electronic dance culture became global with forms of electronic dance music becoming prevalent in many countries. EDM covers a wide range of tempos from the slow 60‑90BPM right up to the insane 240BPM of Speedcore, meaning plenty of choice for ravers, club‑goers and passive listeners.
So… is EDM a genre in its own right or is it simply a method for grouping a vast array of electronic dance sub‑genres into a convenient package for consumers? You decide.
As EDM is an expansive heading for diverse dance genres, the same goes for EDM dances, so it is no surprise then that EDM doesn’t have dedicated dance moves but borrows from the genres it represents including, shuffling, jumpstyle, gloving, liquid dancing, tutting, the Melbourne shuffle, popping & locking, voguing and cutting shapes.
Artist examples: Landscape, Coldcut, Daft Punk, Deadmau5, Calvin Harris, David Guetta, Swedish House Mafia, Major Lazer, Armin Van Buuren, Paul Oakenfold, Disclosure, Rudimental, Years & Years, Digitalism, Example, Justice, Professor Green, MØ, LFO, Felix Da Housecat, Ferry Corsten, Clean Bandit, Moby, Madonna, Paul Van Dyk, Tiësto, M83, System 7, The Aloof, The Groove Corporation, The Dust Brothers, React 2 Rhythm, Charlie XCX, Billie Eilish, Igloohost, Space, Faithless, Avicii, Alesso, Flume
IDM (1992‑today – Peaks 2001 & 2009)
IDM (an abbreviation of Intelligent Dance Music) is an electronic dance genre emanating from the 1990s and drawing inspiration from House, Techno and Drum & Bass. IDM artists aim to challenge conventional electronic dance music tropes including a cursory dismissal of the traditional ‘four‑to‑the‑floor’ forms of EDM. IDM artists wanted to take a more experimental approach to creating dance music. Ironically, a large proportion of IDM is intended for listening, rather than for dancing.
IDM is characterised by intricate rhythms, odd time signatures and unconventional song structures. IDM has been criticised for its somewhat ‘highbrow’ – some say elitist – approach to the art. The use of the word, ‘intelligent’ is seen by many as condescending. IDM has certainly pushed the boundaries of what consumers can expect from electronic music, inviting listeners to engage on an intellectual level, rather than a purely physical one. Some critics suggest that IDM as a concept is patronising of more popular genres of popular dance music. IDM has, however, achieved significant success from fans looking for something a bit different from the norm.
Experimental Dance is a sub‑genre that is an integral part of IDM, intended to defy conventional classification, often challenging the limits of traditional dance music forms (and test the audience’s tolerance). Experimental Dance is a genre that inspires innovation and sonic exploration, embracing unusual rhythms and esoteric sound design. Experimental Dance artists go out of their way to subvert listeners’ preconceptions by creating eccentric, avant‑garde compositions that invite scrutiny and stimulate creativity. Many audiences find Experimental Dance hard to access and difficult to engage with.
Like with EDM, IDM covers a broad range of music sub‑genres, so dances and dance moves are also varied and derivative, including, freestyle, glitch dancing, liquid dancing and popping & locking.
Another popular derivative of IDM is a more traditional approach taken by Nu Jazz, diversifying IDM with a broader range of influences with an emphasis on ‘feel’, ‘groove’ and use of jazzy samples, largely absent from core IDM. Nu Jazz had elements reminiscent of EDM and has helped to bridge the gap between the two.
Glitch Hop is a sub‑genre emanating from the late‑1990s that combined IDM with pared back Hip‑Hop influences, particularly Instrumental Hip‑Hop. Glitch Hop is characterised by its use of ‘glitchy’ (duh!) studio effects and techniques, including cutting, skipping, repeating, chopping, and bit‑crush reduction of recorded samples.
Wonky is another sub‑genre of IDM that combines Dubstep and Hip‑Hop influences arising from around 2009. Wonky (the hint is in the name) is defined by its off‑kilter and unstable mid‑range frequencies using un‑quantised (non‑synchronised) and offbeat Hip‑Hop rhythms at Dubstep‑style half‑time tempos. The name Wonky allegedly arose as a result of the observed effects of ketamine on users’ ability (or not) to dance.
Related genres: EDM, EBM, Glitch, Wonky, Techno, House, Drum & Bass, Breakcore, Glitch Hop, Footwork, Experimental Dance, Nu Jazz, Hip‑Hop, Instrumental Hip‑Hop, 2‑Step, Hypnagogic Pop, Lo‑Fi Pop
Artist examples: Burial, Four Tet, Caribou, Autechre, Aphex Twin, Boards of Canada, Sauarepusher, Mouse on Mars, Orbital, Actress, Amon Tobin, Apparat, Biosphere, Higher Intelligence Agency, Clark, Carbon Based Lifeforms, Cylob, 9 Lazy 9, Faulty DL, The Field, Floating Points, Flying Lotus, Jon Hopkins, Kid606, Lemon Jelly, Moderat, Oneohtrix Point Never, Plastikman
“Dancers are the athletes of God” – Albert Einstein (1879‑1955)
The ‘Best’ Dance Songs of All Time
For all you list‑o‑philes out there, according to the prestigious Rolling Stone Magazine in 2022, they listed the ‘Top 200’ dance music songs of all time. Here are is their Top 20:
Donna Summer – I Feel Love (1977)
Daft Punk – One More Time (2000)
Chic – Good Times (1979)
Frankie Knuckles and Jamie Principle – Your Love (1986)
Indeep – Last Night a D.J. Saved My Life (1982)
Shannon – Let the Music Play (1983)
Robyn – Dancing on My Own (2010)
On the House and Marshall Jefferson – Move Your Body (The House Music Anthem) (1986)
Robin S. – Show Me Love (1992)
Disclosure (feat. Sam Smith) – Latch (2013)
Madonna – Vogue (1990)
Kraftwerk – Trans‑Europe Express (1977)
First Choice – Let No Man Put Asunder (1977)
Adonis – No Way Back (1986)
James Brown – Get on the Good Foot (1972)
Rihanna (feat. Calvin Harris) – We Found Love (2011)
Beltram – Energy Flash (1990)
New Order – Blue Monday (1983)
Prince – Controversy (1981)
Kylie Minogue – Can’t Get You Out of My Head (2001)
Going back a little, to 2011 in fact, Rolling Stone carried out a readers’ poll of the ‘Top 10’ dance music songs. Here’s what actual punters came up with.
Daft Punk – One More Time (2000)
New Order – Blue Monday (1983)
The Beatles – Twist and Shout (1961)
Justice – D.A.N.C.E. (2007)
Madonna – Vogue (1990)
The Isley Brothers – Shout (1959)
Michael Jackson – Thriller (1983)
Deee‑Lite – Groove Is In the Heart (1990)
Chic – Le Freak (1978)
Bee Gees – Stayin’ Alive (1977)
I don’t know what you think of that. Personally, I don’t agree with much of it but that’s not really surprising, as everyone will have their own unique opinion and favourites, which is why I’m not criticising the findings of others. The results presented above are what they are, though; that’s what Rolling Stone came up with.
Suffice to say that my personal selection would be substantially different. For what it’s worth, here are my ‘Top 50’ dance music tracks (only one per artist, in date and then sort‑of alphabetical order).
Chic – Le Freak (1978)
Funkadelic – One Nation Under a Groove (1978)
Earth, Wind & Fire – Boogie Wonderland (1979)
Michael Jackson – Off The Wall (1979)
Anita Ward – Ring My Bell (1979)
The Brothers Johnson – Stomp (1980)
The Gap Band – Burn Rubber on Me (Why You Wanna Hurt Me) (1980)
Joy Division – Love Will Tear Us Apart (1980)
Kool & The Gang – Celebration (1980)
Grandmaster Flash & the Furious Five – The Message (1982)
Rockers Revenge – Walking On Sunshine (1982)
David Bowie – Let’s Dance (1983)
New Order – Blue Monday (1983)
Rick James – 17 (1984)
Paul Hardcastle – 19 (1985)
Happy Mondays – W.F.L. (Wrote For Luck) (1988)
Technotronic – Pump Up the Jam (1989)
C+C Music Factory – Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now) (1990)
Bomb The Bass – Winter In July (1991)
DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince – Summertime (1991)
Prince – Cream (1991)
Stereo MC’s – Connected (1992)
Ini Kamoze – Here Comes the Hotstepper (1994)
Everything But The Girl – Missing (1995)
Massive Attack – Karmacoma (1995)
Faithless – Insomnia (1996)
Orbital – Satan (1996)
The Prodigy – Firestarter (1996)
The Orb – Toxygene (1997)
Ultra Naté – Free (1997)
Beastie Boys – Intergalactic (1998)
Stardust – Music Sounds Better With You (1998)
Aim – Cold Water Music (1999)
ATB – 9pm (Till I Come) (1999)
Basement Jaxx – Red Alert (1999)
Fatboy Slim – Right Here Right Now (1999)
Groove Armada – I See You Baby (1999)
The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl (1999)
Leftfield – Phat Planet (1999)
Moloko – The Time Is Now (2000)
Spiller – Groovejet (If This Ain’t Love) (2000)
The Underdog Project – Summer Jam (2000)
D12 – Purple Pills (2001)
Kosheen – Hide U (2001)
Kylie Minogue – Can’t Get You Out of My Head (2001)
Roger Sanchez – Another Chance (2001)
The Rapture – House Of Jealous Lovers (2002)
X-Press 2 (feat. David Byrne) – Lazy (2002)
LCD Soundsystem – Daft Punk Is Playing At My House (2005)
Hot Chip – Ready For The Floor (2008)
That’s 5 from the 1970s, 12 from the 1980s, 22 from the 1990s and 11 from the 2000s. None from the 2010s or the 2020s (yet). That represents a fairly typical distribution pattern and one that probably isn’t far from dance music popularity by year/decade either. The 1990s was also the decade that the author was most into dance music and nightclubbing, so that may account for it. 1999, it seems was a good year (7).
I’m not sure what each of these 50 tracks all released during a 30‑year period between 1978 and 2008 say about me or my musical taste. However, I would be happy to have these as a compilation for a ‘desert island’ holiday soundtrack. Some are pretty predictable and some are a little more esoteric. Nothing extreme in there, though. To me, collectively they all sum up a positive attitude towards life.
“This existence of ours is as transient as autumn clouds. To watch the birth and death of beings is like looking at the movements of a dance” – Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama – c.480‑400BCE)
The Future of Dance and Dance Music
As usual, speculation about the future is fraught with risk of completely missing the mark. However, let’s give it a go with a few thoughts of random conjecture.
The future of dance will rely not only on the ‘live’ nightclub and festival scenes but also by Internet‑based streaming services that focus specifically on curating dance music playlists, curated by respected DJs, producers and artists. Physical media will see a resurgence and will catalyse a revitalised interest in the past.
Mainstream dance music is likely to feature strongly on future festival circuits. This isn’t new. However, major dedicated dance music events are likely to increase in both number and size. There will be greater crossover and cross‑pollination between dance festivals and traditional multi‑genre festivals, thus increasing the number of ‘genre stages’ within larger festivals.
Dance continues to influence many non‑EDM genres and there will be many more artists including dance music tropes into their material. Dance music will continue to diversify and, while there have been scant recent genre developments, the horizon is just waiting for something new and fresh to get people up and dancing. Innovation is needed and there is a growing sense that something big is brewing somewhere in the underground to propel dance music forward once again.
The change from coherent album releases to a focus on ‘bite‑size’ soundbite single tracks, as has been a typical trend over the last decade will continue to be the case and will be even more so in the future. However, the underground will see the opposite, with a determination to stick to the core essentials that made the dance phenomenon so spectacular in the first place.
As it ever was, the underground will prove to be the experimental breeding ground for what will, one day, become familiar. While the mainstream continues to dilute extremes, the underground will push the boundaries of what has come before – harder and more intense at one end of the spectrum and to amorphous ambient styles like Vaporwave at the other – and that will, over time, infiltrate the mainstream to keep the genres evolving.
‘Live’ DJ performances will push the visual aspect of sessions, making their shows more immersive and captivating. Now that COVID is largely a thing of the past, live artist performances will help to revitalise gigs from local pubs all the way up to large arenas and to more creative virtual/augmented reality (VR/AR) gigs.
Digital and analogue synthesizers will continue to develop and enable new sounds and styles to be created. Recording and production technology will enhance music creativity and technology will enhance distribution and access, including personalised playlist curation.
We can no longer think of dance and dance music being the sole preserve of the American, UK and European artists – it is a global scene and the cross‑cultural influences will increase and help to diversify dance and dance music.
If you respect what the Grammy Awards organisation says, they put forward eight trends from 2022 that they forecast would help to define the future of dance music:
House Infused Pop
Artists Respected The Roots
Women Took The Techno Reins
The UK Came Through
Tech‑House Went Further Mainstream
EDM Nostalgia Lived On
TikTok Made Dance Hits
Rave Was Recontextualized
Nostalgia will become an important part of the future of dance music. It may seem contradictory that one is looking back in order to look forward. Many dance music genres have been remarkably enduring and, as newer generations come through, they will be looking for something new but also discovering some of the best of the past. New genres will supplement existing ones, rather than replace them. Creative artists will surely plunder some of the past and incorporate into something completely new and fresh.
Recording technology will continue to have a major impact on dance music. From the early days where large bands used expensive and finite studio space to record Rock & Roll, Soul, Funk and Disco to the bedroom producers of today using Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs) and plug‑in modules to produce infinitely variable tracks in both EDM and IDM. New technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and big data will be used to create sounds and structures hitherto unheard of. One watches with interest to see what comes next.
“Dancing can reveal all the mystery that music conceals” – Charles Baudelaire (Poet, 1821‑1867)
Final thoughts on Dance and Dance Music
SO… There you have it. The author’s ‘wonky’ (sic!) look at modern dance music trends. The fascination comes in older genres not disappearing but being complemented by newer forms. This incremental approach to dance music evolution has enabled it to adapt to and reflect the needs of ever‑changing audiences across the globe.
Dance and Dance Music is not dead. Far from it. Admittedly, it needs a regular injection of creative inspiration to keep it up‑to‑date and relevant, something that has been missing for a few years now. Dance music will endure and it will continue to reinvent itself over and over and over again. Part of the human condition is to dance and to listen to music. It is an ‘and’, not an ‘or’. That co‑dependency isn’t going to change any time soon.
Music will have to adapt to social change and society will be reflected in the music it engages with, including dance music. Whatever you are into, don’t hesitate, just go with the flow and ‘Get Up and Dance to the Music’, as Sly & The Family Stone encouraged us, way back in 1967. Let’s be clear, dance and dance music won’t save the world, sadly, but it can make it a better place to live. Humanity will not thrive without dance music being an integral part of life’s positive, joyful experiences.
Dance events don’t seem to be losing popularity, with dedicated festivals and holiday party destination venues like Ibiza being perennially attractive for hedonistic youth. DJ Fatboy Slim (a.k.a. Norman Cook) held his infamous ‘Big Beach Boutique II’ free open air event held on Brighton Beach in southern England on 13 July 2002, attracting in excess of 250,000 attendees (organisers expected no more than 60,000!) and brought the south coast city to a standstill. The author was actually there and it was truly overwhelming, scary and, frankly, dangerous. However, it set the bar for what one DJ and a BIG crowd can do.
One little thing the author misses is the CD Single. Particularly for dance music, CD Singles regularly provided 12” (even though a CD is 4.75” – 12” refers to its vinyl equivalent) alternative (re‑)mixes of familiar club or dance pop tracks. Some remixes were less interesting while others gave an insight into the art of remixing of tracks for night club consumption. I suppose that streaming services and compilation albums could fill that gap but they don’t seem to do it in the way they did in the 1990s.
While the author is no longer able to participate in nightclubbing, I still listen to the music that made nightclubbing great fun. I genuinely miss the nightclub environment, the smoke, the dark, the lights, the high sound pressure levels and pounding bass and the sheer energy of the club goers (and, of course, the stunningly gorgeous young women!). I must admit a tendency towards House and Trance genres, as well as the whole Downtempo/Chillout/Ambient Electronica/Dub genres that go with them. The author spent a number of delightfully blissful summers on the White Island of Ibiza lapping up its natural splendour by day and the vibrant music scene by night.
Like with other genre articles in which I’ve been interested, this article has demonstrated both the amount of dance music that I already own as well as discovering and hunting down new (to me) dance music. Music exploration is great fun. I whole heartedly recommend it and worth the inevitable odd dud.
I must admit that I am not into traditional social, regional folk or classical dance/dance music. My heart lies in the here and now, with the vitality and vibrancy of modern dance music. As with other genres, I am also on the discovery trail to see what is out there to find. New is good.
That’s it, the future of Dance and Dance Music looks promisingly strong and transformative. One thing is for sure, it ain’t going anywhere anytime soon. As the title of this article suggests; it is time to get up and dance to the music. And thus it should be forevermore.
“Words make you think a thought. Music makes you feel a feeling. A song makes you feel a thought” – Yip Harburg (Song writer, 1896‑1981)
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Album of the Month’
Unbelievable to think that this month’s honour goes to an album that is already 17 years old! This choice is because, perhaps more than most other albums since the millennium, it conjures up a synesthetic image of sound. To me, it evokes a preternatural vision of a rain‑soaked, neon‑diffused, deserted city scape. One could imagine sitting in solitude listening subconsciously to ‘Untrue’, looking out on the sodden dystopia through a misty haze of condensation on the inside and kaleidoscopic water droplets on the outside, longing for something intangible and lost. Can you feel it? Hell yeah.
Burial – Untrue (2007). ‘Untrue’ is the second studio album by British electronic artist and music producer Burial (a.k.a. William Emmanuel Bevan). It was released in November 2007 on the Hyperdub record label. If any album demonstrates how far 21st Century dance music has evolved since Rock & Roll, this album is probably part of the evidence I’d put forward. Let’s start with the duplicity. This is dance music you can’t really dance to. ‘Untrue’ falls into several (or no) easy genre boxes depending how one is feeling. However, if one has to categorise it, it falls roughly into Future Garage, Dubstep, Ambient and 2-Step or even IDM. The reason it has been chosen is that it was truly ground breaking at the time.
There are many other contenders for this accolade including great albums from the likes of Four Tet, Bonobo, Boards of Canada, Jon Hopkins, Actress and Aphex Twin. There is just something so immersive, so surreal and so influential about Burial’s ‘Untrue’, that it takes the top spot this month. Albums like this only come along perhaps once a decade.
“Fine dancing, I believe, like virtue, must be its own reward” – Jane Austen (Author, 1775‑1817)
Tailpiece
Right, that’s the end of another gargantuan 2‑part article delving into dance and dance music. One trusts that it was in some way enjoyable and the intermission didn’t cause too much inconvenience. I learned something in researching and writing and I hope you did from the results too. Well, I and my dual port lower leg extremities are off to trip over on the dancefloor and make a total ass of myself. You know it’s gotta be done.
From next month, I plan to change things fundamentally for a (hopefully) short duration. Why? I’m not telling. Yet. You’ll have to come back to find out more. Intrigued? Let’s see. The next article is some way off now, at the end of October. Hope to ‘see’ you then.
Truth, peace, love, and guitar music be with you always. Until next time…
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Quote of the Month’: “Act as a beacon for good and stand up for what is right, so that others can see for themselves the best way ahead”
Hi y’all mellifluous musical maties. Here we are at the end of August 2024 and rapidly heading once again toward the wintry Christmas season. Yikes! The end of the month means that it is time for another arguably articulate article from your modest meanderingly‑minded author (soz – I got my alliteration addiction in early this month!) We all need a bit of energetic positivity in our lives to counteract the collective downsides of our dysfunctional existence.
You may recall that, since my ‘comeback’ to writing after a near 3‑year hiatus in August 2023, I have so far indulged in a look at three genre‑related topics. These were Dub Reggae (August 2023), Ambient Electronica (September 2023) and Heavy Metal (June 2024). These have been punctuated by other subject matters to mix things up a bit. If you feel so inclined you can access those articles here (each opens in a new tab):
So, for this and next month’s articles, I’m returning to another musical genre that fascinates me. The title above kinda gives the game away. Yep, folks, it’s back to another bit of genre unravelling with a difference – we are taking an in‑depth look at the evolution, current state and possible future of dance music. During writing, I realised that it was going to be WAY too long for an ordinary mortal to absorb in one sitting, so I’ve had to split it into two parts. Part I takes us from pre‑history to the mid‑1950s while Part II next month will bring us up‑to‑date and take a look into a speculative future.
“The dance is the mother of the arts. Music and poetry exist in time; painting and architecture in space. But the dance lives at once in time and space” – Curt Sachs (Musicologist, 1881‑1959)
Scope
If you are in any way familiar with CRAVE Guitars’ musings, my main interest in music history dates roughly from the birth of Rock & Roll through the current moment in time and with tentative hints at possible futures. Recognising that dance and dance music didn’t appear fully formed in the mid‑1950s, one also has to look further back into pre‑history, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, classical times and the rise of contemporary dance after the end of World War I (WWI), all of which provide the soundtrack to the activity known as dance music. While this earlier history isn’t the real focus of the article, it does provide a useful context.
In modern times, following on from explosion of Rock & Roll in the 1950s and the expansion of popularity of Soul and R&B in the early 1960s, something phenomenal happened. It could be argued that two related but quite discrete genres made today’s dance… well… so toe‑tappingly danceable. We are talking ‘bout Funk and Disco. These innovations in irresistibly groovy music is where this article really kicks into gear in Part II. The gamut of dance and dance music is so massive that even two articles seem insufficient to do it fair justice.
“Every music – except dance music, which is for dancing, I suppose – is for the spirit of the human being, and not for the body” – Klaus Schulze (1947‑2022)
It wasn’t only the hippie peace & love counterculture that came to the fore in San Francisco around 1967. It was back in 1967 that Californian Sly & the Family Stone recorded their second studio album called, ‘Dance to the Music’, including the hit single of the same name, both released in April 1968. Sly Stone used the album to promote his beliefs about peace, brotherly love, and anti‑racism, while appealing to a broader pop audience, Sly’s Psychedelic Soul album and single laid the foundation of what would soon become Funk. A milestone was thus laid and it seemed an apt title to semi‑appropriate for this month’s genre article headline.
Sly & The Family Stone weren’t alone, there were other influential Psychedelic Soul artists like The Temptations and The Four Tops around the same time. Following Funk’s awkward birth in the late 1960s, it would soon be reinforced by artists like the Jackson Five and James Brown. All these artists integrated choreographed dance moves into their live and recorded musical performances. Dance music would soon become unstoppable.
The main focus of this article will be delving into the sweaty world of dance music that followed. From the 1960s and 1970s Funk and Disco developed through a broad range of dance (and danceable) music, culminating in what has become generally regarded as EDM (Electric Dance Music) and its more cerebral (?!) counterpart IDM (Intelligent Dance Music) in the 21st Century. While dance music is now widely regarded as belonging to the umbrella Electronica genre, it wasn’t always thus. Far from it, in fact.
“Love is a lot like dancing; you just surrender to the music” – Pierce Brosnan (Actor, 1953‑)
One of the distinctions about modern dance music is that some tracks draw significant acclaim while the rest of an artist’s catalogue may be completely ignored. Such is the DJ’s power to commit (or permit) ‘death on the dancefloor’. The proportion of ‘one hit wonders’ in dance music is quite high, as is the attrition rate for tracks not on trend and therefore not getting exposure they otherwise might have deserved. Similarly, there is a proliferation of various artist dance music compilations that tend to exaggerate this particular characteristic. Focus on the few familiar and relegate the rest.
As with the author’s previous genre articles, there is a heck of a lot of subjectivity about genres and artists within a fundamentally flawed model of arbitrary categorisation. Omissions and inclusions are inevitable. I am certain that both the methodology and outcome will be criticised and challenged. Fair enough. I am, however, unapologetic for putting my approach out there for scrutiny.
Also, as with all my other articles, this is not an academic thesis; the intention is to entertain, rather than educate, although I hope there is something new, thought‑provoking and of interest herein.
As with other genre articles, genres and sub‑genres have been capitalised for clarity and convenience, rather than being typographically and grammatically correct. A great deal of research went into this article – all hard work – no AI shortcuts here.
Right. Time to get into the groove. Let’s hot step onto the virtual dancefloor.
“Do it big; do it right; and do it with style” – Fred Astaire (1899‑1987)
What is ‘Dance’?
Dance, usually accompanied by some form of rhythmic backing, originated in early pre‑historic human communities (and therefore undocumented). We can suppose that dance was used to communicate with spirits, intimidate competitors, celebrate victories, mourn losses and to bind tribal/social relationships. Dance has changed beyond all imagination and adapted to societal change over the millennia, through many different ‘phases’ or ‘eras’. Dance and dance music endures in a diverse range of forms to the current day. Each new genre innovation complements, rather than replaces, what went before, thereby growing appreciation over time.
While it may be obvious, it is worth a quick definition (or two) of ‘dance’ for clarity:
As a verb, to dance means ‘to move rhythmically to music, typically following a set sequence of steps’.
As a noun, dance is ‘a series of steps and movements that match the speed and rhythm of a piece of music’.
There you go. Now we have a general vague idea of what dance is, how does it manifest? Whether it’s an elegant slow waltz, joyous foxtrot, graceful ballet, catchy country line dance, raving at a festival, headbanging in a heavy metal mosh pit, embracing passionately in a ballroom, writhing sensuously in a dark nightclub, jigging at a Celtic céilídh, boogying to funk, voguing at the disco, following cultural tropes in a tradtional folk dance, swinging to jazz, jiving to Rock ‘N’ Roll, moonstomping to Jamaican Ska or dad dancing at a wedding, it really doesn’t matter a jot. Dancing is an integral part of our diverse and colourful human condition. What you dance and how you dance doesn’t matter; the act of dancing seems to be a fundamental part of what it means to be a human bean.
“Dancing is like dreaming with your feet!” – Constanze Mozart (1762‑1842)
Why Dance?
Dance music is unusual in that it serves an actual purpose other than the music in and of itself. Dance is prevalent in every country and predates human history, so there must be a common bond that unites humans in this unnatural form of movement and outward expression. Dancing is predominantly a social activity; other than practising to perfect a skill, it is rarely, if ever, done in isolation.
People have probably been dancing as long as humans have existed as a sentient, cognitive species. Dance has been, and is, inherent in every human civilisation. Dance does, however, vary depending on time and place. Such pervasive prevalence does beg the question of why humans have felt the imperative need to dance over many millennia in every part of the world.
“And those who were seen dancing were thought to be insane by those who could not hear the music” – Friedrich Nietzsche (1844‑1900)
Dance music has one and only one primary function, which is to get humans to move physically in time to the music being played. Beyond movement, we also listen to dance music because the rhythms engage some primordial need to match the beat, as well as to communicate and express emotions but that’s not really the point.
So, why do we dance? Dancing is a physical activity that triggers the brain’s reward and pleasure centres, and bestows a feeling of elation and euphoria. Dancing enhances our emotional, mental, spiritual and physical well‑being.
Dancing is a heuristic skill, learned through doing. Some are good at it, others less so but most of us do it to one degree or another, even if it just matching patterns of movement to music by tapping a foot or drumming fingers to the rhythm.
“Nobody cares if you can’t dance well. Just get up and dance. Great dancers are great because of their passion” – Martha Graham (choreographer, 1894‑1991)
As we grow and learn, dance helps us sense our surroundings, respond appropriately to external stimuli in a safe way and to build physical and psychological experience. Neuroscientists are taking an increasing interest in dancing and its potential health and well‑being benefits.
Some dances are used to tell stories or to confer allegorical meaning. Like many other forms of artistic endeavour, dance music can be used to provoke a physical and emotional response from a willing participant.
“We dance for laughter, we dance for tears, we dance for madness, we dance for fears, we dance for hopes, we dance for screams, we are the dancers, we create the dreams” – Albert Einstein (1879‑1955)
Music – the Basics
We really don’t need to go into the fundamentals of music here. The topic has been pretty well covered in previous CRAVE Guitars articles. In January 2017, we looked at ‘Why music affects us in the way it does’. We also took a 14‑part look at ‘The Story of Modern Music in 1,500+ Facts’ from March 2019 to May 2020. In those 15 articles, one should be able to establish a solid foundation on the musical context side of things. These articles are all available via the CRAVE Guitars website for those that might like to explore the topic further.
In very broadest terms, and apologies for a sweeping generalisation to make a rather vague point, music can exist in the absence of dance, while dance is normally dependent on music. In contemporary times, a great proportion of dance music tends to rely on rhythm and beat, rather than melody or harmony. The definitions of dance above both count on ‘rhythm’ and therefore dance music relies on instruments that emphasise rhythm. Early dance rhythm and beat were provided by percussive instruments, rather than devices that produced musical notes, which probably developed much later. Chanting and/or singing would often accompany persistent drumming.
“No matter what culture you’re from, everyone loves music” – Billy Joel (1949‑)
For clarity, another couple of helpful musical definitions:
Rhythm is defined as, ‘a strong, regular repeated pattern of movement or sound’.
The beat is defined as, ‘the basic unit of time and the rhythmic pulse that gives a piece of music its tempo and flow’.
Like dance, music is a way of establishing social cohesion, a form of ‘tribal’ social structure that, through innumerable generations of tradition, has persisted over the generations up to today. Dance music is a genre of music that exists primarily for dancing and secondarily for listening. As the author gets older (sadly, I don’t care for this ageing lark one iota), the balance between dancing and listening has moved irrevocably along a continuum from the former to the latter. Having said that, I still enjoy listening to dance music and I dance in my mind, if not with my body.
That’s enough generality and presumption for now. Time to delve a little bit deeper, as long as you have the stamina. Next up, it is time to link dance and music together.
“Music and rhythm find their way into the secret places of the soul” – Plato (c.427‑348BCE)
Music and Dance
Dance music is either live or recorded music that has been composed specifically to enable or accompany the art of dance. Dance doesn’t stand still (sic!), it is a progressive form of expression that continues to evolve across its manifold forms.
Dance music, like other forms of music, has the ability to affect the soul and evoke profound emotional responses. Dancing can therefore be considered an inward and outward expression of the human spirit. Dancing is generally a joyous activity that is not normally engaged in when one is feeling depressed, angry, ill or anxious.
Possibly, the most important element of dance is music, and it is rare, at least in modern times, for dance of any kind – social, theatrical, performance or religious – to develop without some form of musical or percussive accompaniment.
“I’m dancing to the music of the madness inside me” – George C. Wolfe (Playwright, 1954‑)
The Science of Music and Dance
There are anthropological, sociological psychological, physiological and medical science behind the act of dancing.
Neuroscience explains that dancing changes the physiological structure of the brain in unique ways. It has long been understood that music has a positive effect on mental health. Likewise, dancing also engages overlapping brain networks, including common regions involved in perception, action, movement, and emotion. Dance connects the brain’s cognitive processes to motor functions of the body.
An additional benefit is that the physical activity improves co‑ordination, stamina, balance, fitness, muscle tone and weight control. Both music and dance stimulate the release of serotonin and endorphin hormones, which act on the pleasure and reward centres of the brain. Both hormones act as natural remedies, which are known to reduce anxiety and to work as a natural anti‑depressant.
Psychologists suggest that there are additional health and wellbeing benefits to dance and music. Dancing enhances motivation, mental acuity, improved behaviour, mood and social bonding. Dancing positively affects cerebellar functioning and cognitive processes. Dancing enables people to congregate socially, to belong to a like‑minded community and to share a common purpose, thereby helping to overcome feelings of exclusion, isolation, introversion, shyness and loneliness. Psychologists even extrapolate their findings so far as to suggest that dance is essential to human survival as a species. Maybe that sounds a bit far‑fetched but, who knows, they may be right.
Dance is sometimes used today as a form of therapy. Dance Movement Therapy (DMT) and Dance Movement Psychotherapy (DMP) involve the psychotherapeutic use of music, movement and dance to support intellectual, emotional, and motor functions of the body by examining the correlation between movement and emotion.
Neuroscience suggests that music stimulates a wide range of regions across the brain simultaneously, including faculties such as memory, emotion, movement and reward. Through repetitive overexposure, the brain uses deep encoding to store into, and recall from, memory things like lyrics, melody and movement. Deep encoding in the brain results in what we commonly call ‘familiarity’ and helps us to repeat actions in order to experience previously experienced rewards. The brain tends to remember emotional events more effectively than non‑emotional events. Deeper emotional processing of a stimulus facilitates deeper encoding in the mind leading to stronger, more evocative memories. This effect tends to be strongest between the ages of about 10‑30, resulting in what we call long‑term nostalgia and reminiscence during later stages of life.
Muscle memory, or motor learning, is the ability of our bodies to remember and repeat specific dance movements without conscious thought. Repetition creates a fixed design of the dance steps being learned. The pattern of movement is then stored in the brain so that the dancer doesn’t consciously need to process each move.
It is not just the brain’s auditory cortex processing sound when listening to music, people remember better because emotion‑related areas in the brain are also being activated. Emotions are evoked when listening to music because it stimulates more than one part of the brain. The brain’s motor regions are also stimulated, meaning that people remember movement associated with music and recall wanting to dance along to it.
In addition, the physical exertion of dancing reduces the health risks of a sedentary and indolent lifestyle. Anthropologists and sociologists refer to the process of social synchronisation as ‘collective effervescence’. All good then.
“Dance music is like a virus: it has affected so many different genres” – Avicii (1989‑2018)
The Science of Music, Dance and Sex
Dance also has a strong sexual element. Dance BPMs (Beats Per Minute) of around 120‑130 tend to correspond to the rhythm of human sexual motions. History suggests that the connection has always been present. Before the 1920s, traditional dance sexuality was present but largely implied and unspoken. The ‘flappers’ during the post‑WWI 1920s brought sex and dance out into the open.
Since Rock & Roll erupted in the post‑WWII boom of the mid‑1950s, puritans and moral conservatives have denounced modern popular dance music as ‘the devil’s music’, heralding depravity and debauchery resulting in the breakdown of established austere social structures. For them, the end definitely seemed nigh.
Once the contraceptive pill acted as the catalyst for the sexual revolution and the women’s liberation movement during the 1960s, the links between music, dance and sex became inseparable. The cannabis, speed and acid‑fuelled peace and love hippie counterculture of the late 1960s took promiscuity to its most liberal, orgiastically permissive level. Since the 1970s, sexual dance seems to have become accepted as a way of life and no longer a noteworthy (or newsworthy) issue.
There is a wealth of research to support the argument that music, dance and sex are closely related. Neuroscience suggests that there is an evolutionary link between music and sex. In the same way that Charles Darwin suggested that bird song is a function to attract mates, he also posited that music has evolved with corresponding changes in human sexual courtship and display behaviours. Darwin called the effect of music on sexual behaviour and social bonding as, ‘sexual selection’.
Experimental psychobiology asserts the notion that music serves a reproductive function. Chemicals used in neurotransmission associated with the human brain’s ability to process music are also present in the brain’s instinctive process of sexual attraction and sexual performance. Neurobiology is developing a greater understanding that music and sex may have common effects on the brain including hormonal stimulation such as pleasure and reward systems.
Research has indicated that music and dance has the potential to:
Diminish or relax sexual inhibitions
Enhance sexual arousal by elevating the mood
Indirectly enhance sexual arousal and pleasure by reducing stress
Reduce concerns about body image or performance
Enhance confidence
Enhance the focus on the sexual act
Heighten the sense of partner bonding and intimacy
Create a synchronicity between the musical and the movement rhythms that aids sexual performance and satisfaction
There you have it, music and dance can act as a powerful aphrodisiac and there is a logical rationale behind what we intuitively know be the case. Time to get it on!
“When the music and dance create with accord…their magic captivates both the heart and the mind” – Jean‑Georges Noverre (Ballet dancer, 1727‑1810)
The Economy of Dance Music
Dance music is important to the global economy. MIDiA Research suggests that the global valuation of the dance music industry rose to $11.3 billion, a 16% net increase over its pre‑COVID pandemic levels.
The IMS Business Report claims that the dance music industry grew 34% in 2022 based on dance music data from the previous year. Live music performance is the industry’s biggest driver, showing that revenues increased 65% over the previous year to $4.1 billion. When looking at events, EDM genre’s share of festival circuit bookings rose 6% year‑on‑year to 39% of total festival bookings. Impressive.
In addition the supply chain up and down stream is also crucially important, the contributory value of which is much harder to determine. Everything from music teaching, musical instrument and gear manufacturing, studio recording and production, logistics and distribution, merchandise, second hand market, etc. etc. It is safe to assume that there is an overall economic multiplier effect.
A recent study by the Journal of International Marketing hypothesised that recreational dance influences productivity and performance in the workplace due to employees’ higher intrinsic motivation and subjective wellbeing, as well as lower absenteeism.
“I play a lot of hard, uncompromising dance music; it can be anything from dance to rock to reggae” – Peter Hook (1956‑)
The History of Dance and Dance Music Eras
There have been a number of dance ‘eras’ over the millennia. So, let’s start with a broad description of dance music over human history and then we’ll dig a bit deeper to see what is really going on today. The history of dance and dance music is massive and highly complex, reflecting and influencing the cultural and social evolution of human civilisation. As with a similar approach taken to the Heavy Metal genre, the 6‑era model used here is the author’s arbitrary construction.
Part I of this article covers the first four eras covered below. Part II, next month, will cover the last two eras.
Era #1 – Ancient Times
Prehistory: Dance and music have been intertwined for as long as Homo Sapiens have been around (approximately 300,000 years), although there is little or no documented evidence to support the assumption. Dance has been an integral part of human development, indicated by cave paintings such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in India, dating back around 10,000 years.
Ancient Civilizations (3100BCE‑395CE): In antiquity, Egyptian dance was integral to religious rituals, spiritual worship and social celebrations. Ancient Greek societies used dance in theatrical performances and social gatherings, evidenced by images on Greek vases depicting dancers and musicians. In Ancient Rome, dance was used in religious ceremonies, political events and social gatherings.
Era #2 – Middle Ages to the Renaissance
Medieval Period (500‑1500CE): Dance in medieval Europe was often associated with religious and folk traditions. The earliest Western dance music that we know can be reproduced faithfully includes medieval dances like carols and estampie.
Renaissance (15th‑16th Century): The Renaissance period saw the rise of formal European court dances, such as the 16th Century slow processional dance, the pavane and the physical galliard, which were performed widely in England, Portugal, France, Spain, Germany and Italy.
Era #3 – 17th to 19th Centuries
Baroque Period (1590‑1750): Dance became more formalised with the prominent development of Ballet in the French noble courts. The classical music minuet was used for a popular social dance of the same name.
Classical Era (1750‑1829): The ballroom waltz emerged in Austria and Germany, alongside other nationalistic dances like the mazurka and polonaise from Poland.
Romantic Era (1800‑1850): Ballet continued to evolve, with famous works like ‘Giselle’ and ‘Swan Lake’ emerging during this period.
Era #4 – 20th Century (First Half)
1900s and 1910s: The early part of the Century saw the rise of modern dance, with pioneers like Isadora Duncan and Martha Graham breaking away from classical ballet to explore new forms of artistic expression through dance. Ballroom dancing gained popularity, and dance music became a significant part of social life.
1920-1940s: Dance music saw a major post‑WWI boom with the rise of Jazz, Swing, Tap and contemporary dance. Big band music became popular in the period before WWII broke out.
Era #5 – 20th Century (Second Half)
1950s: Following WWII, the cultural explosion that accompanied the Rock & Roll phenomenon became the dominant dance music from the mid‑1950s.
1960s: The late 1960s saw the emergence of, R&B, Soul and Funk. The use of electronic alongside traditional instruments began to influence music creation and production. Artists began experimenting with analogue synthesizers and complex studio recording techniques.
1970s: The mid‑late 1970s Disco movement reinforced dance as an integral part of mainstream popular culture. Artists pioneered electronic dance music, influencing a diverse range of genres like Hip‑Hop, Techno and House.
1980s: With the wide availability of synthesizers, sequencers and rhythm machines EDM sub‑genres such as Synth Pop and Europop began to develop, resulting in diversification and experimentation with dance styles. In discotheques and nightclubs, genres like House, Techno, Trance and Garage began to dominate dance floors.
1990s: The appeal of Rap and Hip Hop in the 1990s saw the growth of urban street dance, such as breakdancing. EDM coalesced and evolved with groove‑centric genres such as House and Techno becoming a staple in nightclubs and (both legal and illegal) raves.
Era #6 – 21st Century
2000‑today: EDM rose to become a global phenomenon and dominant force, with numerous subgenres and a significant presence in mainstream music. Dance music continues to evolve reflecting changes in technology, culture, and social trends. The rise of social media and digital streaming has also played a significant part in popularising dance trends.
Dance and dance music remain a powerful form of expression and a vital part of civilisation’s cultural heritage worldwide. The model above isn’t the only way of looking at things. As we will see shortly, some forms of dance and dance music transcend time periods, geographical boundaries and genre categorisation.
“There may be trouble ahead – But while there’s moonlight, and music, and love, and romance – Let’s face the music and dance” – Irving Berlin (1888‑1989)
Dance and Dance Music – Digging Deeper
Now we’ve defined five broad dance music eras, let’s take a look at some of the alternative perspectives. First, we’ll take a quick look at long‑standing dances that have endured anywhere from ancient times right through to today.
“Work like you don’t need the money. Love like you’ve never been hurt. Dance like nobody’s watching” – Leroy Robert ‘Satchel’ Paige (Professional baseball pitcher, 1906‑1982)
Traditional and Folk Dance (pre‑history to today)
There are innumerable cultural dances from every corner of every country of every continent in the world, many dating back to time immemorial. These dances tend to fall into two broad groups, informal folk dances and formal classical dance. The former tends to be more social and the latter comprise symbolic artistic performance dance.
“Dance first. Think later. It’s the natural order” – Samuel Beckett (1906‑1989)
Here are just a few (40!) of the more notable regional dances to demonstrate the diversity that has survived to the current day (presented in alphabetical order).
Aboriginal dance (Australia) – The ceremonial dance has held a very important place in the culture of the indigenous peoples of Australia for thousands of years
Apsara (Cambodia) – Aspara is one of the formal traditional dances of the Royal Ballet of Cambodia with ornately designed costumes and dancers depicting celestial spirits
Ballet (Italy) – Classical ballet is a performance dance that has its origins in the Italian Renaissance Courts of the 15th Century, being refined in France, England, and Russia
Belly Dance (Egypt) – A Middle Eastern dance, originally called ‘danse du ventre’ (‘dance of the stomach’) originated some 6,000 years ago to celebrate pagan female fertility
Bharatanatyam (India) – Indian classical religious dance originating from the Hindu temples of Tamil Nadu
Bolero (Spain) – A Spanish theatrical dance popular in the 18th and 19th Centuries, originating from the Castile region around 1750 to 1772
Cajun Jig/Jitterbug (USA) – The Cajun one‑step jig was popular in Louisiana in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The two‑step Jitterbug is considered a cowboy‑style swing dance
The Can‑Can (France) – Originating in Paris during the 1830s and 1840s as a salacious risqué dance in Parisian dancehalls such as the (in)famous Moulin Rouge. The Can‑Can became a symbol of the French cultural Belle Époque (‘beautiful era’) as well as of women’s liberty and emancipation
Capoeira (Brazil) – A dance based on martial arts begun by African slaves arriving in South America in the 16th Century
Cossack (Russia) – A.k.a. Hopak, originated in Southern Russia and Ukraine in the 17th Century by East Slavic Orthodox Christian warriors. Their dance is characterised by its high jumps, squatting, and intricate footwork
Court Dance (Korea) – A formal court dance in a tradition that dates back centuries for the entertainment of the royal family, court officials and foreign envoys
Dragon Dance (China) – Dancing with symbolic dragons dates to the Han Dynasty of 180‑230CE. The dance is supposed to banish evil spirits and expel bad luck. It is particularly important during Chinese New Year celebrations
Ewegh (North Africa) – Traditional dance of nomadic Tuareg culture deriving from North Africa. Men stand in a line, making facial expressions while wailing
Flamenco (Spain) – Flamenco dance and music originated in Andalusia with influences including Arabic, Roma, Christian and Jewish elements
Haka (New Zealand) – A traditional Maori war dance intended to intimidate opponents. It has become a symbol of the Kiwi All Black rugby team
Hula (Hawaii) – A Hawaiian dance accompanied by chanting or singing. It evolved in the Hawaiian Islands around 400CE by Native Hawaiian settlers. Through tourism, film and theatre, the Hula changed significantly in the 20th Century with its familiar grass skirts
Indlamu (Southern Africa) – A tribal dance most often associated with Zulu culture of southern Africa and the war dances of its fearsome warriors
Innuit Drum Dance (Greenland) – Drum dancing and singing are forms of traditional indigenous Inuit artistic expression and music from Greenland
Irish Step (Ireland) – A step folk dance with intricate footwork rooted in ancient Celtic tradition which remains popular in Irish communities today
Jarabe Tapatio (Mexico) – A traditional Mexican dance with women dressed in china poblana dresses and men wearing charro suits
Kabuki (Japan) – The classical stylised Japanese dance‑theatre dates back over 400 years. Kabuki blends music, dance, and mime, as well as making use of elaborate costume and makeup
Kathak (India) – An ancient classical dance originating in northern India traditionally associated with the tales of roaming bards known as Kathakers (storytellers)
Line Dancing (USA) – A modern American dance popular in the 1990s in which a group of people dance to a repeating sequence of steps while arranged in one or more lines or rows. It is a social dance in country & western dance bars, social clubs, dance clubs and ballrooms
Maasai Dance (Kenya) – The traditional Maasai ‘jumping dance’ involves male villagers leaping into the air as a show of strength and stamina
Maypole (Sweden) – Originating in Germanic pagan fertility rituals, maypole dancing dates back many centuries to celebrate the arrival of summer in England, Germany and Sweden.
Morris Dance (England) – The skipping, stick wielding, handkerchief waving ‘Moryssh daunsers’ began in the cobblestoned streets of London during the mid‑15th Century, eventually migrating to rural communities
Native American Indian dance (USA) – A diverse range of tribal ceremonial dances dating back centuries before North American colonisation. Dances include the deer dance, pipe dance, rain dance, dog dance and scalp dance
Polka (Bohemia, now Czech Republic) – Polka is a popular dance in 2/4 time, particularly common throughout Europe and the Americas
Salsa (Cuba) – Cuba’s distinctive casino dance blends African drums with Spanish guitar, brass and percussion. It was exported from Cuba in the early 20th Century and became popular in New York City in the 1940s and 1950s, growing into a global phenomenon
Samba (Brazil) – Samba originated in the Afro/Brazilian communities of Baha and Rio de Janeiro in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. It plays an important part of Rio’s annual Carnaval
Stick Dance (Portugal) – The ‘dança dos paulitos’ is an age‑old dance where dancers brandish sticks to emphasise the rhythm. It is performed by pauliteiros that takes place in Miranda do Douro, in Portugal’s north east Trás‑os‑Montes region
Schuhplattler (Germany) – A Bavarian courtship dance dating back to the mid‑19th Century and is popular at Munich’s annual Oktoberfest, typified by the wearing of iconic lederhosen
Square Dance (USA) – A broad group of dances for couples, arranged in a square, with a couple on each side facing the middle. The form includes, barn dances, English folk dances and Irish ceilidh dances
Tango (Argentina) – A highly complex and passionate dance, originated in the 18th Century barrios of Buenos Aires in Argentina
Tanoura (Egypt) – On the surface, the spinning tanoura has some similarities to Turkey’s Whirling Dervish. Egypt’s tanoura dancers, though, wear multi‑coloured skirts
Tinikling (Philippines) – The ‘Bamboo Dance’ emulates the movements of a bird as it walks through grass stems or over broken tree branches
Waist Drum Dance (China) – An ancient ritual originating from North West China over 1,000 years ago with performers beating waist drums as they run and leap in formation
Waltz (Austria) – From the 17th Century, the polite society waltz was popular in the Habsburg Court and now the annual Vienna Opera Ball
Whirling Dervish (Turkey) – The spinning move by male dancers wearing voluminous skirts dates back over seven centuries to the Sufism and the Mevlevi Orders
Yaake (Niger) – Traditional African dance by young Wodaabe males during the Gerewol festival emphasising flamboyant dance moves to attract available females
“Never give a sword to a man who can’t dance” – Confucius (c.551‑479BCE)
These really are just the tiny tip of a very, very large iceberg. There are thousands of national, regional and local dances and this is just a taster, hopefully to inspire further exploration. Apologies to any historic communities who might feel that their traditions are unintentionally under‑represented.
In 2003, UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) included dances (along with music and theatre) as performing arts under the International convention of ‘intangible cultural heritage’. There are many traditional dance forms listed by UNESCO, including ballet, belly dancing, flamenco and rumba.
“Music and dance are all you need” – Moliere (Playwright, 1622‑1673)
Conventional Dance – Roots of contemporary dance in blues, jazz and country music (1910s‑1950s)
In previous music history and genre articles, the author has suggested that the majority of modern, contemporary musical styles from the mid‑1950s onward stem from the three pillars of Blues, Jazz and Country music. For continuity, consistency and simplicity, I’m sticking to that basic structural set of influences here.
“Part of the joy of dancing is conversation. Trouble is, some men can’t talk and dance at the same time” – Ginger Rogers (1911‑1995)
While there are inevitable overlaps and cross‑fertilisation as trends grew and faded, particularly during the inter‑war period, there are a few notable dance genres. Dance styles associated with the development and fusion of Blues, Jazz and Country include:
Ragtime – Syncopated African/American ragtime music played on piano or banjo originated in St. Louis, Missouri and influenced social dances in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, as well as influencing the development of jazz. Dance styles used to ragtime included, the turkey trot, the bunny hug and the shimmy.
Jitterbug – Jitterbug is a generalised umbrella for swing dances, covering a range of styles including the lindy hop, jive, west and east coast swing, collegiate shag and balboa.
Charleston – A social jazz dance of the 1920s, named after the harbour city of Charleston in South Carolina. The Broadway show, ‘Runnin’ Wild’ (1923) used a tune called ‘The Charleston’. It was popularised by young women nicknamed ‘flappers’ and young men of the so‑called post‑WWI ‘Roaring Twenties’.
Tap – Tap dancing is an American performance dance from the 1930s combining African and Irish influences that uses the percussive sounds of tap shoes with metal plates (‘taps’) on the toes and heels striking the floor, often accompanied by popular band music. It started as a street dance and became popular as a performance art form on Broadway and in Hollywood film.
Swing – Swing represents a group of social dances that developed alongside swing Jazz music from Harlem in the 1920s to the 1940s, after which WWII reduced its popularity. Two discrete forms were the west coast swing and east coast swing. After WWII, bebop and jump blues styles became commonplace.
Jive – Jive is a social swing dance style with its roots in African/American communities in the early 1930s. Its name comes from the vernacular slang of the time. Jive included elements from including Salsa and Tango and continued in popularity during the Rock & Roll years.
Lindy Hop – Lindy Hop is an American dance originating from the African/American communities of Harlem, New York City in 1928 and has evolved over time, proving to be popular during the big band swing era of the late 1930s and early 1940s. Lindy Hop was the first partner dance ever to feature acrobatic elements and laid the ground for Rock & Roll dance.
“Since the beginning of time mankind has used music and dance to commune with the Spirit of Nature and the Spirit of the Universe…” – Goa Gil (Musician, 1951‑2023)
Ballroom Dance
A number of dance styles have become semi‑formalised under the banner of ballroom dance by the World Dance Council. Many of the ballroom dances are based on either older traditional (pre‑20th Century) dances or contemporary (20th Century) dances. There is therefore some overlap between formal ballroom styles and the original forms of dance that inspired them. Ballroom dances are generally split into two broad types; Standard/Smooth and Latin/Rhythm, including:
Standard Ballroom
Waltz/Viennese Waltz – The former is known as the English or slow waltz, while the latter is the up tempo European waltz. Recognisable by its ¾ time signature.
Tango – Derived from the Argentinian original (see above) incorporating American and European influences adapted for the ballroom.
Foxtrot – An English ballroom dance with roots in American Jazz and Ragtime band music. Now one of the internationally recognised ballroom dances popular at competitive dance events.
Quickstep – Another international standard ballroom dance that combines up tempo elements of the Foxtrot and the Charleston. Known as the ‘dance of joy’.
Latin Ballroom
Pasodoble – An 18th Century fast‑paced, dramatic and theatrical double‑step in 2/4 time, turned into a Latin ballroom social dance inspired by Spanish bullfights.
Rumba – Rumba is a standard ballroom dance that has its roots in the American east coast during the 1930s, combining American band music with Afro‑Cuban rhythms.
Samba – The ballroom version of the Samba in 2/4 time varies significantly from the original Brazilian regional folk dance (see above).
Cha‑Cha – The Cha‑Cha Latin American ballroom dance of Cuban origins, dating from the 1950s and deriving from the 1940’s Cuban mambo.
Bolero – Bolero is a Spanish/Cuban dance in ¾ time popular in the late 18th and early 19th Centuries (see above), with the ballroom form differing from the original Cuban variety.
East Coast Swing (ECS) – ECS is a social partner dance and has several variations based on fast American swing music, such as big band, Rock & Roll, Rockabilly and Boogie‑Woogie.
Jive – Jive is a ballroom dance style with its roots in the social swing dance of the early 1930s (see above). In competitive dance, Jive is more closely associated with swing, rather than other Latin dances.
“The dance is a poem of which each movement is a word” – Mata Hari (Dancer, courtesan and spy, 1876‑1917)
Intermission
Right. That’s the end of the first Part of this 2‑part dance music genre article. The advantage of Part I is that it is relatively short (for me) and, I hope, reasonably digestible.
At this point, from around the mid‑1950s onward, dance styles tended to migrate from identifiable dance styles accompanied by music to identifiable music genres and sub‑genres (with a few notable exceptions) with dances to match.
As mentioned at the start, my original plan was for a single‑part article. On reflection, I took the difficult decision to split it into two for easier reading. This point seems a logical place to stop for now and we will reconvene shortly in Part II.
Next month, we’ll resume with the modern evolution of dance and dance music from the mid‑1950s. As the article was originally written as a single piece of work, there hopefully won’t be a long wait for Part II. There is more to come folks, much more.
“The truest expression of a people is in its dances and its music. Bodies never lie” – Agnes de Mille (Dancer and choreographer, 1938‑1993)
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Album of the Month’
The honour this month goes to a favourite funk/disco dance music studio album. Why this particular choice? Well, it was released during a particularly emotionally traumatic period of my life and one that I never wish to repeat. I don’t do regrets but if I did, there are some things I’d like to do over again and be a better person second time around. I won’t divulge details other than to mention that, when one is feeling desperately down, there is nothing like a bit of bouncy dance music to boost serotonin levels as an antidote for, and natural relief from, the all‑consuming darkness of depression. Even the album’s title is appropriate.
The Brothers Johnson – Light up the Night (1980). This 9‑track release was the 4th studio album by the American brothers – George and Louis Johnson – produced by the great Quincy Jones, and released in April 1980 by A&M Records. While pretty much a strong dance oriented album throughout, it is the opening track and hit single, ‘Stomp’ that really provides necessary dose of natural anti‑depressant. Particularly impressive is the great bass playing of the late Louis Johnson and his Music Man Stingray Bass. ‘Stomp’ represents 384 seconds of joyous, funky groovy goodness. The album’s release came just at the end of the height of the organically analogue Funk/Disco boom and all the better for it. Evocation can be a powerful thang.
No other studio album by the brothers quite matched ‘Light up the Night’ in my opinion. Perhaps it was timing and genre that were just what I needed at a vulnerable point in my growing up. However, there was an awful lot of great party music using traditional instruments from the likes of Earth, Wind & Fire, Kool & the Gang, Parliament/Funkadelic, Chic and The Gap Band around the same time, before the whole Synthpop scene took off over the next decade or two. Today, dance music is synonymous with EDM and we seem to have lost some of the organic nature of music from the peak of funk and disco.
“Every day brings a chance for you to draw in a breath, kick off your shoes, and dance” – Oprah Winfrey (1954‑)
Tailpiece
Phew! I’m out of breath, not from all the dancing, just the exertion of completing only half of another lengthy genre article. The trouble I’ve found with research and writing is that it is not only addictive but also essentially a sedentary activity, with not much of in the way of exercise other than to get up and make the occasional cup of tea/coffee.
Still, I hope you found something to revel in and, perhaps, to explore some of the musical delights covered herein. As always, when I do these research projects, I’ve learned something from the task and reignited an interest in all things dance music. Please come back next month and lap up some more dancey stuff in Part II of this terrifically tuneful tome (ending as I started with terrible alliteration). As a bonus, you won’t have to wait a whole 4‑and‑a‑bit weeks, for reasons to become clear in time, I am planning for Part II to be published early in September. Watch this space.
Truth, peace, love, and guitar music be with you always. Until next time…
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Quote of the Month’: “In the absence of truth, just what are we supposed to believe?”
HOLA Y BUENOS DIAS SEÑORES Y SEÑORAS. Bonjour et bonne journée mesdames et messieurs. Hallo und guten tag, meine damen und herren, hello and good day ladies and gentlemen. Once again, we enter the twilight zone of CRAVE (Cool & Rare American Vintage Electric) Guitars and explore another subject of the author’s weird whim and fancy. Well, most of us are still alive as of July 2024, so that’s something for which we can all be grateful. Life really is too short and should be treasured, not devastated, especially by senseless conflict. This isn’t just old‑hat hippie rhetoric. This stuff matters… to everyone. While I know I say something along these lines every month, it is worth reiterating until those responsible take notice.
This month, the subject is relevant to the year we are in (2024) and how one particular American solid body electric guitar changed the way we play the instrument and make music across the globe over the last seven decades. Yes, my hearties, it is time to take an alternative peak at the Fender Stratocaster®, or the ‘Strat®’ as many like to call it, as it celebrates its Platinum 70th Anniversary. That’s an awful lot of candles on the guitar‑shaped birthday cake, I think you’ll agree. Time to indulge oneself, I reckon.
There are SO many takes on the subject that, especially this year, I felt I would try to take an altogether different perspective from everyone else. It would be very easy to lapse into following what other authors have written and indulge all the back‑slapping hyperbole surrounding one of the few genuinely legendary icons of the 20th Century guitar industry. So… we aren’t going to ‘grandstand’ or go through the trite, meticulous examination of the object in question. Instead, I thought I’d aim straight for light‑hearted entertainment value, rather than geeky, nerdy, dry, forensically‑focused examination of the Fender Stratocaster in minutiae. Even though I’ve always fancied being a learned professor, this is not an academic history lesson. For those wanting the geeky, nerdy lowdown, I apologise, you’ll have to look elsewhere – and, let’s face it, there is no shortage of resources, as you might expect. Just search the hinterwebby thingummy and you’ll find everything you could ever want and/or need to know. For those seeking the truth, though, good luck. That takes a bit more effort.
I can’t completely ignore some of the basic facts and figures that someone knowledgeable about vintage guitars will already know, so apologies for (re‑)stating the blooming obvious to those who know far more about Stratocasters than I ever will. For everyone else, it is an oblique look at the cultural phenomenon that is the Stratocaster within the perspective of the times.
We are back to normal authorship activity again this month; no AI was used in the research and writing of this article. Thankfully.
The cultural context of 1954
Before we get too far, I thought we’d start off with a brief recap at what the world was like in 1954, revealed through a few key trends and events that occurred during that year. This will give a bit of crucial cultural context for when we delve a bit deeper in due course. Just for clarity, I wasn’t born before or during 1954, I emerged into existence a few years later, so I didn’t live through these momentous occasions myself.
In 1954, the 34th President of the U.S.A. was Dwight D. Eisenhower (a.k.a. ‘Ike’, 1953‑1961). The UK Prime Minister in 1954 was Sir Winston Churchill, who served his second term as PM (1951‑1955). Queen Elizabeth II was the British Monarch, newly crowned in June 1953. Other notable political leaders included Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union (1953‑1964) and Mao Zedong, who served as the Chairman of the Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China (1949‑1976) with Chiang Kai‑shek alongside of him, governing the Republic of China, a.k.a. Taiwan (1950‑1975).
Moving from politics to sport. The 1954 NFL Championship Game (now known as the Super Bowl) took place between the Cleveland Browns and the Detroit Lions. The Browns won 56‑10. Meanwhile, in baseball, the San Francisco Giants swept the Cleveland Indians 4‑0 in the 1954 World Series. The NBA Championship series resulted in the Minneapolis Lakers beating the Syracuse Nationals 4‑3. To complete the set, the Detroit Red Wings triumphed over the Montreal Canadiens, winning the NHL Stanley Cup series, also 4‑3. In motor racing, Racing driver, Bill Vukovich won the Indy 500, while José Froilán González and Maurice Trintignant won the 1954 Le Mans 24‑hour race, and Juan Manuel Fangio won the 1954 Formula 1 World Championship. In the UK, West Bromwich Albion beat Preston North End to win the 1954 FA Cup final 3‑2. In tennis, Jaroslav Drobný and Maureen Connolly won the men’s and women’s singles titles respectively at Wimbledon. Inn golf, Sam Snead won the US Masters and Peter Thomson won the British Open Championship.
Space exploration was in its infancy and NASA didn’t exist until 1958, so it was the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) that led the early US space programme.
Men’s fashion in 1954 included corduroy sports jackets, Dacron gabardine suits, wool houndstooth suits, slub weave shirts, faded denim colour sweat shirts, wrinkle shed cotton shirts and plastic raincoats. Women’s fashion in 1954 included blazer jackets, box jacket suits, tweed dresses, plaid pleated skirts, taffeta dresses, swing flared corduroy skirts, white flecked wool skirts, woven plaid dresses and woven stripe coats. Ladies’ accessories were popular, including hats, gloves, bags and scarves. More generally, women’s fashion in 1954 was characterised by prominent, pointed busts, with nipped in waists to accentuate the female hourglass silhouette. In the post‑war boom, timeless elegance, glamour and femininity were the order of the day. At the same time, general day‑to‑day fashion adopted a more casual style, with easy‑to‑wash‑and‑dry nylon materials, emphasising the practicality and functionality that began to influence fashion trends for the rest of the 1950s. Fashion icons included Audrey Hepburn, Marilyn Monroe and Grace Kelly. Fashion designers like Chanel, Christian Dior and Hubert de Givenchy were prominent figures.
Well‑known cinema releases in 1954 included, ‘Godzilla’ (Japanese), ‘20,000 Leagues Under the Sea’, ‘Creature from the Black Lagoon’, ‘On the Waterfront’, ‘Rear Window’, ‘White Christmas’, ‘Seven Samurai’, ‘Dial M for Murder’, ‘A Star Is Born’, ‘Seven Brides for Seven Brothers’, ‘The Caine Mutiny’ and ‘Them!’.
Famous actors of the time (not already mentioned) included Marlon Brando, Elizabeth Taylor, James Stewart, William Holden, Humphrey Bogart, Ray Milland, Karl Malden, Joan Crawford, Judy Garland, James Mason, Gary Cooper, Burt Lancaster and Howard Keel.
Famous novels published in 1954 included, ‘Lord of the Flies’ by William Golding, ‘The Lord of the Rings’ trilogy by J.R.R. Tolkien, ‘I Am Legend’ by Richard Matheson, ‘Horton Hears a Who!’ by Dr. Seuss and ‘Live and Let Die’ (James Bond) by Ian Fleming.
Popular American automobiles in 1954 included, the Chevrolet Bel Air and Beauville Station Wagon, Oldsmobile Ninety‑Eight Holiday Coupe, Ford Crestline Skyliner and Country Squire, Packard Panther Daytona Roadster, Mercury Monterey, Plymouth Belvedere, Chevrolet 3100 truck, Buick Roadmaster and Skylark, Cadillac Series 75 Fleetwood Imperial, Studebaker Starlight Coupe, Ford F‑100 Panel Truck, Hudson Hornet, Ford Thunderbird, Chevrolet Corvette C1 and Chevy Corvair Fastback. Nice!
Outside the US, 1954 saw family cars like the Hillman Minx, Morris Minor, Ford Anglia, Ford Popular, Rover P4, Austin A40, Riley RME, Wolseley 6/90, Citroën 2CV, Triumph TR2, MG TF, Vauxhall Wyvern and the Volkswagen Beetle. More upmarket, there was the Jaguar XK140, Porsche 356, Austin‑Healey 100, Alfa‑Romeo Giulietta, Ferrari 375 MM Coupé Scaglietti and Mercedes Benz 300 SL, all taking to the roads and making the headlines. Also nice!
Favourite girls’ (and, yes, I am being binary here) toys of the time included the Betsy McCall Doll, Super Market Check‑Out and Little Girls Perfume Kit. Boys’ top toys included, Dick Tracy Siren Squad Car, Buck Rogers Sonic Ray Light Gun, Matchbox cars (Corgi models didn’t appear until 1956), Airfix kits and Take Apart Cars Garage. LEGO, Meccano and train sets from the likes of Hornby and Tri‑ang were enduringly popular. The board game Scrabble had been introduced in 1952 and was a hit at the time, as was the perennial Monopoly. Some familiar names there.
In music, American rock & roll pioneer Bill Haley & His Comets recorded the milestone ‘Rock Around the Clock’ at Pythian Temple studios in New York City. It was originally released as a single in 1954 but didn’t chart until it was re‑released in 1955 when the track was used as the title music for the film, ‘Blackboard Jungle’ (1955).
Also in music, in 1954, a 19‑year old American singer, Elvis Presley left his job as a truck driver for Crown Electric and signed his first recording contract with producer Sam Phillips at Sun Records in Memphis, Tennessee. Sun Records recorded and released Presley’s debut single, ‘That’s All Right’ the same year.
Other popular music artists in 1954 included The Chordettes, Doris Day, Tony Bennett, Frank Sinatra, Rosemary Clooney, Perry Como, Ray Charles, Nat King Cole and Bing Crosby.
Notable musicians that were born in 1954 include, Neal Schon, Nancy Wilson, Pat Travers, Al Di Meola, Steve Morse, Pat Metheny, Eric Johnson, Elvis Costello, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Viv Albertine and Uli Jon Roth. Other entertainers born in 1954 included, Jerry Seinfeld, John Travolta, Ray Liotta, Michael Moore, Ron Howard, Matt Groening and Oprah Winfrey.
… and the one list that no‑one wants to appear in… Deaths in 1954 included; Alan Turing, Frida Kahlo, Henri Matisse, George ‘Machine Gun’ Kelly, Sydney Greenstreet and Lionel Barrymore.
Other notable events of 1954 included:
The US Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional
The end of McCarthyism (the Second Red Scare), the systematic campaign of political repression of alleged Communists in the US, led by Senator Joseph McCarthy
The UK finally ended food rationing, which had been introduced during WWII
The first nuclear‑powered submarine, the USS Nautilus was launched
American company RCA released the first colour television set
The first successful kidney transplant was performed in Boston, Massachusetts
American actress, Marilyn Monroe married baseball player Joe DiMaggio
The main US immigration port of entry, Ellis Island in New York Harbour was closed
Swanson introduced TV Dinners
A hydrogen bomb test was conducted by the US on Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean
British athlete Roger Bannister became the first person to break the four‑minute mile
The first practical solar cell was demonstrated by American company Bell Telephone Laboratories
IBM established the 650, its first mass‑produced computer and FORTRAN became the most widely used computer programming language
The Vietnam war (1954‑1975) started
The Breathalyzer was invented for measuring breath alcohol content
The first Church of Scientology was established in Los Angeles, California
Texas Instruments announced the development of the first transistor radio
The first issue of Sports Illustrated magazine was published in the US
The first branch of the Burger King restaurant chain opened in Miami, Florida
1954 was quite a year, then. I think we can all agree it was a very different world to today’s chaotic zeitgeist. Right, by now, you should have a pretty good idea of what the wider world was like when the Fender Stratocaster was first born, as a baby brother to the resolutely workhorse Fender Telecaster, which had been released in 1950.
The Fender Stratocaster – An introduction to a guitar that really needs no introduction
I doubt if there are many people who are interested in modern music that haven’t at some point in their lives, set their eyes on a Fender Stratocaster. People may well be familiar with the design, even if they don’t know the name or the model’s long and lauded history. It is an instrument that has become synonymous with modern guitar music across many, many musical genres over many generations.
Let’s start with the basics that most people are likely to know. The Fender Stratocaster was launched on an unsuspecting world in 1954, supplementing two other Fender instruments that have become legendary icons, the Fender Telecaster and the Fender Precision Bass.
With due deference to the online encyclopaedia that is Wikipedia, I thought I would paraphrase its definition of what the Fender Stratocaster is, rather than labour my lame brain to come up with pretty much the same thing. Consider me lazy at this point.
“The archetypal Stratocaster is a solid‑body electric guitar with a contoured asymmetric double‑cutaway body with an extended upper horn; the body is usually made from alder or ash. The neck is usually made from maple and attached to the body with screws (often referred to as ‘bolts’) and has a distinctive headstock with six tuning pegs mounted inline along a single side; the fingerboard may be maple or another wood, e.g. rosewood, and has at least twenty‑one frets. The Stratocaster’s body is front‑routed for electronics, which are mounted in a plastic pickguard. Most Stratocasters have three single‑coil pickups, a pickup selector switch, one volume control and two tone controls. Bridges generally come in two designs: the more common pivoting ‘tremolo’ bridges, and the less common ‘hardtail’ fixed bridge. Both types of bridge have six individually adjustable saddles whose height and intonation can be set independently. The innovative tremolo system is balanced by springs mounted in a rear cavity. The output jack is mounted in a recess in the front of the guitar body. Many different colours have been available. The Stratocaster’s scale length is 25.5 inches (648 mm).”
So there you go. When broken down like that, it doesn’t sound very exciting does it? Now we know what a Stratocaster actually is, you can now stop reading and go and do something altogether more exciting. Well done for making it this far. For all the avid aficionados out there, there is a lot more to enjoy… I promise. Read on my merry musical masochists.
“I’ve been playing a Fender since 1963, and before that it was my dream guitar. I can’t endorse it more than that” – Rory Gallagher (1948‑1995)
A few bits and pieces about Fender the man and his company
Clarence Leonidas ‘Leo’ Fender was born on 10 August 1909 in Anaheim, California to Clarence Monte Fender and Harriet Elvira Wood, owners of an orange grove business. Leo married his first wife Esther Klosky in 1934. After her death in 1979, Leo re‑married in 1980 to his second wife, Phyllis. Phyllis passed away in 2020.
Leo founded Fender Manufacturing in 1946, renaming it Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Co. in 1947. The historic Fender factory site (1953‑1985) owned by Leo Fender where the first Stratocasters were manufactured is at 500 South Raymond Ave. and Valencia Dr., Fullerton, Orange County, California 92381. The site is now home to Jimmi’s Nascar Bar & Grill sports bar.
It has been widely promulgated that, while he played piano and saxophone when he was young, Leo Fender couldn’t play guitar and relied on those around him, co‑workers, dealers, customers and artists, to advise him on guitar‑related matters. Leo Fender was widely regarded as an inventor, electrical and mechanical engineer and business entrepreneur, rather than a musician.
You may think that the iconic Fender logo design has been static since c.1950. However, like many long‑standing corporate brand logos, it has been redesigned many times while retaining the distinctive typeface. I don’t think anyone knows who actually designed the original logo, although some suggest it was based on Leo Fender’s signature. The design evolution goes through roughly four time periods:
The original ‘spaghetti’ logo (1950s – not an official name)
The ‘transition’ logo (1960‑1967 – designed by Robert Perine)
‘CBS’ logo (1968‑1980)
The ‘modern’ version still in use today
Nowadays, Fender uses many different (but familiar) logo styles. There is a typeface very similar to that used by Fender called, appropriately, ‘Strato’, designed by Bastien Sozoo. I resisted the temptation to publish the whole article in the font! So here is an example…
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) acquired Fender from its founder in January 1965 for $13m, which was more than the $11.2m that CBS paid for an 80% stake in the New York Yankees Major League Baseball team in November 1964.
Leo Fender didn’t give up participating in the music industry after selling his company to CBS. After a period of ten years during which he was prevented from competition, he was instrumental (sic!) in the creation of Music Man (now owned by Ernie Ball) from 1974 and G&L (standing for George [Fullerton] and Leo) from 1979.
Leo Fender died from complications of Parkinson’s disease in Fullerton, California on 21 March 1991, at the age of 81. He was buried at Fairhaven Memorial Park in Santa Ana, Orange County, California next to his first wife, Esther.
In 2004, Fender moved its production facility from Fullerton to Corona, also in California. The current Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (FMIC) HQ is based in Los Angeles, California, at 1575 N Gower St #170. The Fender company’s legal status is listed as a private company. Hawaii’s largest private company and motor vehicle dealer, Servco Pacific Co., became the new majority owner of FMIC in January 2020. Outside the USA, Fender’s main European location is in East Grinstead, West Sussex, England, UK.
The 21st Century Fender is a modern multinational company with production facilities in various countries, including the United States (Corona, California), Japan (from the early 1980s), Mexico (from 1990), Korea, China and Indonesia. Stratocaster models range from the (relatively) inexpensive Fender‑owned Squier® brand through the mainstream Mexican and American production lines up to the high end ‘Made in USA’ Custom Shop models. Even more upmarket are the spectacular and unique Masterbuilt and NAMM Show one‑offs.
Fender also owns a number of subsidiary brands including, Squier, Bigsby, Charvel, EVH Gear, Gretsch, Jackson, PreSonus and Sunn. Since 2002, Fender has had the rights to market, produce and distribute Gretsch products. Fender also owned the Ovation and Guild brands until both were sold off in 2014.
Myths, legends, facts and fallacies
I strongly suspect that there are probably more myths and fallacies than there are legends and facts herein. I DO NOT claim any of the following to be true. In fact, I am certain that there are more than few apocryphal tales to be told. Remember, this is just for entertainment and not a doctorate thesis. Much of what follows is probably common knowledge to diehard Stratocaster fans but they aren’t really the prime audience for this article.
While I prefer to deal in well‑researched and corroborated evidence, there is very little verifiable truth to many aspects of the Stratocaster’s history. There are many peddlers of ‘truth’ out there who seem to accept anything at face value and proceed to regurgitate falsities as reality. When it comes down to it, there is actually very little genuine documentation and a lot relies on the anecdotes and knowledge of people, many of whom are sadly no longer with us. Much of the rest is fabrication and artifice.
“The Les Paul was more challenging because of the weight of it, but the tone was there that the Fender will never have and vice versa. So you have to make a decision as to what you’re going to have as your main instrument. After seeing Hendrix, I thought, ‘I’ll stick with the ‘Strat” – Jeff Beck (1944‑1923)
The Fender Stratocaster at age 0
The original design of the Fender Stratocaster was a collaborative effort by Leo Fender, Bill Carson, George Fullerton and Freddie Tavares. Work started on prototypes as early as 1951.
It is highly unusual in the business of industrial design that a first attempt represents the pinnacle of achievement and even more unusual in that the initial design endures for 70 years almost completely unchanged. The Stratocaster is one of those perennial designs (as was the Telecaster), creating an archetype. Strangely, though, in guitar manufacturing many designs have stayed true to their origins. After all, we aren’t driving around in cars that look and work like they did in 1954 and we aren’t using telephones or TVs that haven’t changed at all in their aesthetics or functionality over the last seven decades. Fender and Gibson among others got things right at the first time of trying back in the 1950s. Weird or what?
The Stratocaster was given its name not by Leo Fender but by Fender’s sales and marketing manager, Don Randall, who also came up with the Esquire, Telecaster and Champ names. The Stratocaster name was a nod to aircraft technology (Randall was also a pilot), evoking a futuristic image to go with its forward‑looking design. Unlike the Telecaster, the Stratocaster retained its name from the outset. The single pickup Telecaster was originally called the Esquire until the two pickup model became the Broadcaster, followed by a short period without a name (the so‑called ‘Nocaster’ following a trademark objection from Gretsch) before it gained its proper nomenclature that we are familiar with today.
In 1948, Paul Bigsby (1899‑1968), famous for Bigsby vibrato systems, built a guitar for country & western star Merle Travis. The headstock bore more than a passing resemblance to what would become the original headstock shape of the Fender Stratocaster. Bigsby’s design pre‑dated Fender’s by several years. Was Fender influenced by Bigsby’s guitar or did Leo Fender blatantly copy it? The jury remains out on that one.
The Stratocaster was the first production electric guitar to have three pickups. It was also the first to have a spring‑loaded floating vibrato system. Not only that, it also had the belly and forearm contours that made the guitar so slinky, comfortable, light and futuristic looking. Leo Fender always intended his guitars to be highly functional. Like the Telecaster and other Fender instruments, the Stratocaster was based around a modular design, so that parts could be replaced or upgraded easily. One example of this is Fender’s bolt‑on neck, unlike up‑market competitor Gibson’s traditional glued‑in set‑neck design.
Leo Fender designed the Stratocaster’s innovative synchronized tremolo (NB. The word tremolo is a misnomer in this context. It is technically a vibrato) system. Compared to the popular Bigsby version, Fender opted for a simple design that offered players a greater range of pitch variation as well as more reliable tuning stability. It was revolutionary because of the way that the bridge saddles move together with the bridge unit as single unit.
The Stratocaster was (apparently) intended to replace the ‘plain Jane’ Telecaster and was designed as a response to the upmarket Gibson Les Paul. However, after customer feedback, Leo retained the Telecaster and the Stratocaster was positioned to complement to the Tele as an evolution of design. The Stratocaster wasn’t a resounding success initially, with only 720 sold in 1954/1955. Initially, the revolutionary Precision Bass launched in October 1951 proved more popular than the Stratocaster or Telecaster. The Stratocaster model in one form or another has been in continuous production since 1954 – quite an accomplishment.
Images from the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) are generally considered to be in the public domain and typically not subject to copyright restrictions, so I believe that I have the rights to publish the following 1954 patent, courtesy of the USPTO. The patent was filed on 30 August 1954 and granted on 10 April 1956 to C.L. Fender for the ‘tremolo device for stringed instruments’, i.e. the Stratocaster’s vibrato system.
The Stratocaster was officially released on Thursday, 1 April 1954 (accompanied by a pre‑production run of c.100 guitars with serial numbers 0100‑0199). The first production Stratocaster with serial number #0100 is now owned by George Gruhn, famous for Gruhn Guitars in Nashville, Tennessee. Originally, the first one was sold to an ordinary customer, not to anyone famous. Note: David Gilmour’s Stratocaster bearing serial number #0001 may have the lowest serial number but it wasn’t the first to be manufactured.
According to Leo Fender’s long‑time business partner, George Fullerton, the earliest production Stratocasters never reached market due to a major issue with the vibrato system, which hastily had to be junked and redesigned. If true, the re‑tooling of the vibrato might help to explain the delay between the launch in the spring of 1954 and the full production run reaching stores and customers later that year.
As far as anyone can tell, the first commercial sale of a Fender Stratocaster took place on Wednesday, 13 October 1954, from the first full production run. The starting price in 1954 was $249.50 (vibrato) or $229.50 (hardtail), compared to a Telecaster at $139.65 or a Gibson Les Paul Goldtop at $225, it was an expensive instrument. A case added another $39 to the price. To give that some context, the average American monthly income back in the day was less than $300. For comparison, $249.50 in 1954 is approximately the same value as $2,896.91 today.
Now for the good news (?). We know that 268 Fender Stratocasters were made in 1954 and 452 were made in 1955. The bad news is that that, I’m afraid, is about as much as we know for sure.
Early demo production Stratocasters made during the spring and summer of 1954 had serial numbers on the tremolo (vibrato!) cover. The finish on the first Stratocaster bodies was two‑colour sunburst (brown to yellow) with maple necks and fingerboard.
“I met Leo Fender, who is the guru of all amplifiers, and he gave me a Stratocaster. He became a second father to me” – Dick Dale (1937‑2019)
The Fender Stratocaster through the years
There have been innumerable Stratocaster models over the decades and many of these overlap specific years. However, in order to make some simple sense of the development of the Stratocaster, there have been some six generalised periods associated with the Fender Stratocaster’s past. Please remember that these are how I think about ‘Strat eras’ and the simplification is NOT definitive:
1954‑1959 – The first pre‑CBS generation. Maple neck and fretted fingerboard, sunburst finish, eight‑screw single‑ply pickguard and the ‘spaghetti’ logo
1959‑1965 – The second pre‑CBS generation. Maple neck with initially with ‘slab’ rosewood fingerboard, solid colours or sunburst finish, eleven‑screw 3‑ply pickguard, changed dot marker material, patent numbers on headstock decal and logo style changed
1965‑1981 – The first CBS generation. Standard rosewood fingerboard on a maple neck with optional maple fingerboard, larger headstock, three‑screw neck plate from 1971, new logo, serialisation system from 1976 and five‑way pickup selector switch from 1977
1980‑1984 – A transitional restructuring period for Fender under CBS control, also often known as the ‘Dan Smith era’. The STRAT, Elite and (Japanese) JV Stratocasters added to the basic model
1986‑2016 – Post‑CBS Fender. The American Standard Stratocaster, maple or rosewood 22‑fret fingerboard on a maple neck, smaller headstock reinstated, four‑screw neck plate. Mexican production started. The Fender Custom Shop was formed in 1987
2017‑today – The American Professional, Performer, Player and Vintera series among others. The replacement for the long‑standing American Standard
Early Stratocaster bodies were primarily made of ash for the first 2‑3 years until Fender migrated to alder mid‑1956, mainly for practical reasons. Ash was still used for the its grain pattern in translucent finishes.
There have been approximately 25,580 days (a.k.a. 613,920 hours or 36,835,200 minutes, if you prefer) in 70 years from 1954 to today. It is broadly estimated that somewhere in the region 180‑200 million Stratocasters have been manufactured in all markets over the last 70 years. That equates to a whopping 7,037‑7,819 per day on average, so it may be an over‑estimate. Accurate production figures either don’t exist or are informed guesswork. Some estimates go by serial numbers but these are wildly unreliable and don’t give an accurate indication of actual production capacity. Nobody actually knows the real figures with any sort of certainty. Even Fender FMIC doesn’t know. Does anyone out there have any realistic idea, give or take a few thousand? I doubt it and, anyway, it would be hard to prove with any degree of certainty.
One might wonder what comes next for the septuagenarian Fender Stratocaster. Given that the fundamental design hasn’t changed since its launch. It would be unwise for Fender to mess with the basic concept too much. Fender has meddled with minor specification variations many times over the years but nothing substantial that has stuck the test of time. Now, Fender relies heavily on the ‘vintage’ features and various degrees of ‘relic’ finishes to evoke the past and appeal to customers. However, nothing beats a genuine vintage ‘real thing’ (but you’d expect me to say that!).
Of them all, many pundits reckon that the 1962 Fender Stratocaster (three‑colour sunburst with rosewood fingerboard and vibrato) is the absolute zenith of the model. As a result, the so‑called ‘Pre‑CBS’ Stratocasters are the most sought after by collectors (and therefore attract the highest prices on the vintage market). Those same pundits (wrongly, in my opinion) disparage any guitars made by Fender after it was sold to CBS in 1965 with 1970s being criticised as a nadir (also wrong as a generalisation in my view).
The Stratocaster was the first Fender to have a sunburst finish, initially two colours (dark Salem brown to canary yellow) and, later three colours (dark brown, through red to yellow) in 1958. The Stratocaster’s sunburst finish helped to disguise the joins in timber of the bodies made of two or more pieces glued together. Solid colours hid any joins completely.
The Stratocaster was also the first Fender to be offered in custom colours in 1957 (for a 5% upcharge). Custom colours were sourced from DuPont’s line of automotive colours for General Motors. DuPont Duco nitrocellulose custom colours included, Black, Shell Pink, Daphne Blue, Sonic Blue, Fiesta Red, Dakota Red, Sherwood Green Metallic, Foam Green and Surf Green. There were also five DuPont Lucite acrylic custom colours including, Olympic White, Lake Placid Blue Metallic, Shoreline Gold Metallic, Burgundy Mist Metallic and Inca Silver Metallic. Originally, despite assumptions to the contrary, there was no (Sea) Foam Green or Candy Apple Red to begin with.
Probably Fender’s most famous advertising campaign ran 1964‑1967 all bearing the slogan, ‘You won’t part with yours either’. The marketing featured people carrying their Fenders while undertaking ‘risky’ or unusual activities including parachuting, skateboarding, water skiing, flying, climbing telegraph poles, lying on railroad tracks, catching a bus, boarding a boat, driving, at the barber/hairdresser, at the prom, swimming, riding a motorcycle, at the dentist, at a football game, in class, etc. NB. Do not do this at home, folks! That memorable ad campaign was the work of Robert Perine, the very same man that designed Fender’s ‘transition’ logo.
Fender also ran a successful series of ‘fantasy and fairy tale’ adverts which ran 1975‑1976, known for their cleverly conceived themes, elaborate, surreal, colourful and downright trippy imagery featuring familiar fairy tale characters using Fender gear. Sadly, copyright prevents me publishing examples.
In 1976, Fender stopped stamping serial numbers on the neck plate and started using decal serial numbers added to the front of the headstock. The change prompted a new serial number system starting with a letter for the decade, followed by a digit for the year, e.g. ‘S8’ for 1978, ‘E3’ for 1983, etc. The rest of the serial number was unique.
Fender stopped shipping the cosmetic chrome bridge cover (often discarded by players, as it is entirely non‑functional) with standard Stratocaster models from the late 1970s onwards, although several ‘historically accurate’ reissues have them.
The 1979 Fender Stratocaster Silver Anniversary was the first model produced by Fender to commemorate a specific period since the Stratocaster’s launch in 1954. The 25th Anniversary’ model was produced in limited (if you can call 10,000 limited) numbers, complete with a commemorative certificate of authenticity and a ‘25’ stamped neck plate with dedicated serial number. Very early Anniversary models were made in Pearl White but finish problems saw it recalled and re‑released in Porsche Silver, perhaps more appropriate for commemorating its Silver Anniversary, although one might wonder why Fender didn’t use their own Inca Silver. It seems strange today, in the days of commemorative models appearing regularly, that no‑one had thought of issuing an anniversary model before this one.
Fender trademarked the name ‘Stratocaster’ in the US on 14 November 1972. While the abbreviation of Stratocaster, Strat, had been in common usage for years, Fender released a specific model formally called the STRAT in 1980 with a number of features that differed from the mainstream Stratocaster. Fender finally got around to trademarking the word ‘Strat’ in the US on 23 January 1996.
Fender didn’t introduce 5‑way pickup selector switches on production Stratocasters until 1977. It is strange to think that, for 23 years, the standard 3‑way selector switch was the only one available. After‑market 5‑way switches were popular to achieve the distinctive ‘in between’ tones for which the Stratocaster is so well known. Even then, the 5 positions don’t give the full range of pickup selection options, leading to many other variations and modifications over the years, including 3 on/off buttons, one for each pickup, used on the Stratocaster Elite in the 1980s that gave the most intuitive, although intensely disliked, method of getting all available permutations.
Fender’s answer to pickup selection was to introduce the S‑1 system in 2003 to provide additional options through a push button on the volume control. This provides the ‘all three’ and ‘neck and bridge’ permutations on the Stratocaster that were previously absent, along with other phase variations. As the S‑1 system does different things on different models, it has caused confusion, rather than an intuitive solution.
In 1985, twenty years after CBS acquired Fender from its founder, CBS sold Fender to an investor group led by William Schultz, CEO of FMIC for $12.5m and changed its name to the Fender Musical Instrument Company. This management buy‑out marked a new period, often referred to as the ‘FMIC era’, right up to today.
In 1987, to coincide with the launch of the American Standard Stratocaster, Fender replaced the old 6‑point vibrato with an all‑new 2‑Point Synchronized Tremolo system, which is still used today. However, this wasn’t the only vibrato system used on factory Stratocasters; during the ‘Dan Smith era’, Fender used the unique, short‑lived (1983‑1984) top‑loading Freeflyte® vibrato system on some standard Stratocasters and the Elite. The Freeflyte vibrato, made by German company Schaller, had a pop‑in vibrato arm, had no cover plate on the rear of the body and no through‑body stringing.
Fender was the first major guitar company to set up a Custom Shop in 1987, led by CEO Bill Schultz along with master builders, John Page and Michael Stevens. The Custom Shop division was based in Fender’s main American factory in Corona, Riverside County, California. Premier luthiers were dedicated to creating the finest high‑end Fender guitars built to customers’ demanding specifications. The Fender Custom Shop was the first major brand to introduce ‘relic’ finishes on their guitars, initially appearing at the 1995 NAMM trade show in Anaheim, California, where they proudly showed off their first laudable attempts at fake aging techniques.
To paraphrase the original Star Trek TV series, “it’s wood Jim but not as you know it”. In 2015, the Fender Custom Shop made a Stratocaster constructed from cardboard for its body and neck. The project to create it was apparently called ‘Cardboard Chaos’. Apparently, it sounded good and played well, just as you’d expect for a pricey Fender Custom Shop guitar.
For many people, the iconic brand name and the genuine Fender logo are the only things to have on the headstock of their guitars. The headstock has changed shape several times and the logo has been refreshed many times but a Fender Stratocaster is still a Fender Stratocaster. For others, the location of manufacture matters. Some insist that their instruments come from California, while others prefer Mexican or Japanese models. There are plenty who are happy with the budget Squier brand on the headstock and don’t care whether their guitar is made in the US or Indonesia. Some will insist on pro‑level specification working guitars while others want the bling and status of a Custom Shop one‑off to show off, while plenty just want a solid, well‑made workhorse model that sounds great and plays well. Some like ‘em shiny, others like ‘em trashed to hell, some like ‘em new, some like ‘em reliced (NB. not a verb!), some insist on authentic vintage. Some even seek out the copies, so they get the look and feel, without the Fender price tag and smug, snobbish attitude. The ‘lawsuit era’ imitations from the 1970s and 1980s are also now becoming sought after by collectors, e.g. ‘Stratocasters’ from Ibanez, Aria, Hondo, Cortez and Maya. Some like to build ‘bitscasters’ or buy DIY assembly kits, while others commission skilled independent luthiers to give them exactly what they want. There are plenty of Strat‑a‑likes (the so‑called ‘S‑type’ guitars) on the market from the likes of Kramer, Yamaha, Sadowsky, Harley‑Benton and even the ‘Silver Sky’ made by Paul Reed Smith (PRS). All this diversity goes to show that there is plenty of room for everyone and that is part of the contemporary appeal.
Fender experimented with building and marketing its own Strat copies including the ‘Starcaster by Fender’ produced in East Asia between c.2001 and 2014, as a low‑price student model. It was sold through budget outlets in the US and often as a ‘Starcaster Strat Pack’, which included a Squier solid state practice amplifier. NB. This model has absolutely nothing to do with the genuine 1970s Starcaster semi‑hollow body (or its reissues).
Fender also made other models based to a greater or lesser extent on the fabled Stratocaster, including the Fender Lead and Fender Bullet ranges. There is more on these particular Strat‑like instruments later in the article.
The sky‑high vintage market prices of pre‑CBS Stratocasters means that many historically significant examples are confined to museums or elite collections, ruling out ownership by genuine enthusiasts (like me). The downside is that the number of scarily accurate fake instruments, especially from China, are entering the market. Where’s there is money to be made, there will be unscrupulous criminals trying to screw honest people to make a buck.
Sadly for Fender, the Covid‑related boom ended and the post‑Covid market has stalled amid global volatile economic operating environments. The result is market saturation and stock piles. The Covid‑related collapse of live entertainment didn’t help either. The commercial viability issues have led to closures, cut backs and staff reductions. The global downturn has hit many manufacturers in many industries, including Fender. Fender’s response is to double down on providing ‘build‑your‑own’ and ‘mash‑up’ guitars in an attempt to attract new customers and to compete by using agile and efficient production methods. We wait to see how successful Fender is at weathering the storm.
There will undoubtedly be many more significant anniversaries for Fender and the Stratocaster. Sadly, I don’t think I’ll still be around to celebrate the Stratocaster’s centenary in 2054.
Some notable artists associated with the Stratocaster
Buddy Holly (1936‑1959) was one of the first pop stars to use a Fender Stratocaster. He acquired a 1954 sunburst Stratocaster in 1955. He is pictured with one on the front cover of his first album, ‘The ‘Chirping’ Crickets’ in 1957. He also played a Stratocaster when he appeared on TV on The Ed Sullivan Show on 1 December 1957. Both exposures helped to promote both the company brand and the model.
After seeing Buddy Holly with a Stratocaster, Hank Marvin (1941‑) of The Shadows was the first guitarist to receive a Stratocaster in the UK, imported directly from Fender (there was no UK distributor at the time) in 1959. Availability of American guitars in the UK was highly restricted by a post‑World War II import trade ban on US goods entering Britain. Hank’s Stratocaster was in a Fiesta Red finish with gold‑plated hardware and birds‑eye figuring on the neck. In fact, Hank’s guitar was one of the last maple fingerboard Stratocasters before Fender changed to Rosewood.
“It came in a tweed Fender case with the red plush lining and this magnificent‑looking thing was just lying inside. It was like something from space, really, it was so futuristic in its design” – Hank Marvin (1941‑)
When Bob Dylan (1941‑) appeared at the Newport Folk Festival on 25 July 1965, he was booed by the diehard traditional folk audience for the ultimate sin of using an electric, rather than acoustic, guitar… and playing with a backing band. The guitar that Dylan used at Newport was his 1964 three‑colour Sunburst Stratocaster.
The guitar that Jimi Hendrix (1942‑1970) famously burnt and smashed on stage at the Monterey Pop Festival on 18 June 1967 was allegedly a cheap substitute guitar and not his Stratocaster. The switch was made without anybody realising it at the time. Jimi Hendrix also played a white 1968 Stratocaster at Woodstock when he appeared on the morning of August 18, 1969 and, famously, used it for the sonic mayhem of his rendition of ‘The Star Spangled Banner’, a defining moment for the festival, Hendrix, rock music and the Stratocaster.
Eric Clapton’s (1945‑) famous ‘Blackie’ Stratocaster was a hybrid of three guitars he bought in 1970, a 1956 body and 1957 neck with pickups from a third. Clapton auctioned ‘Blackie’ for almost £1m in 2004 in aid of his Crossroads Foundation. The Fender Custom Shop has made a faithful replica of the famous axe.
Rory Gallagher bought his 1961 sunburst Stratocaster second hand for £100 on credit from Crowley’s Music Store in Cork, Ireland in 1963. The Strat, along with a borrowed Telecaster, was stolen in 1966 after an appearance in Dublin. Following a TV programme called Garda Patrol on RTÉ, the guitars were returned to Rory a few days later, a bit worse for wear after being recovered from a ditch. The combination of play wear, exposure, numerous modifications and Rory’s well‑documented caustic sweat probably being the main culprits for the major degradation in his guitar’s finish over years of use. Apparently, early 1960s Fender finishes were more prone to wear than ones from the late 1950s.
Some other Stratocaster stories
Fiesta Red was actually based on the 1956 Ford Thunderbird car colour. As a Fender custom colour, Fiesta Red is, well, red (duh!), not pink. Over the years, Fiesta Red has become synonymous with the Fender Stratocaster. It has, however, been the subject of much debate, possibly more than any other Fender colour. Over time, Fiesta Red has been known to have had a number of shades varying from bright red to dark pink. It is, though, definitely more orange than the darker Dakota Red. There has been some confusion caused by the variations in shade of Fiesta Red, made worse over the years as the colour faded, lacquers yellowed and older guitars were refinished. Hank Marvin’s Fiesta Red Stratocaster was erroneously described by him as ‘flamingo pink’, which was not an official Fender colour. Other similar colours such as Salmon Pink and Coral Pink also added to the confusion.
Only an Englishman would actually go as far as to marry a Fender Stratocaster. Seriously! A British man called Chris ‘Fenderman’ Black did just that, in 1995. His ‘bride’ was a c.1960 model, apparently called ‘Brenda the Fenda’. He followed through with wedlock after his actual wife joked that he spent so much time with his Stratocaster that he should marry it. Black allegedly said, “We’ve had such a long engagement that I decided it was time we did the decent thing”. He also might have said, “it doesn’t answer back!” Fair point. A friend performed the ceremony after a local vicar refused to do it. Mr Black reportedly said that he wants to be buried with his wife (the Fender Strat). Mrs Black (the human female) was apparently unimpressed by her husband’s antics. I know not what happened to the three of them, post nuptials.
Many guitarists use a piece of hardwood to prevent the Stratocaster’s spring‑loaded vibrato block from moving and effectively disable the vibrato altogether. The often‑used ‘mod’ was done in an attempt to stabilise tuning, improve tone and increase sustain. Eric Clapton, Rory Gallagher and Mark Knopfler were all known to ‘block’ their Stratocasters’ vibratos. Hardtail Stratocasters with through‑body stringing were available right from the outset in 1954.So, why customers didn’t just buy a hardtail Strat in the first place, who knows?
While on the subject of Stratocaster vibrato issues… One problem is that the springs can cause an irritating ringing sound. The solution? A piece of foam rubber coaxed under the springs. Another problem encountered by some is a loose or swinging ‘trem’ arm. The solution? Don’t lose the little spring in the arm socket or get one and restore the stiffness.
It has been said over many years by many people (whether true or not – how do they actually know?), that the Stratocaster is the most copied guitar design ever. Fender got seriously fed up with its iconic design being copied, resulting in lost sales that it felt something had to be done to stop Intellectual Property Theft, as they saw it. In 2003, Fender instigated legal proceedings to trademark its designs in the US, including the Telecaster, Stratocaster and Precision Bass body shapes. The trademark action was targeted at ESP Guitars, Sadowsky Guitars, Lakland Musical Instruments, Peavey Electronics, Warmoth Guitar Products and Schecter Guitar Research amongst others.
After five long, expensive years, Fender’s Trademark Application was rejected on 31 March 2009. Unfortunately for Fender, the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board of the United States Patent and Trademark Office ruled that, “The applicant has not established acquired distinctiveness such that these two‑dimensional outlines of guitar bodies, standing alone, serve to indicate source… The evidence overwhelmingly demonstrates that these configurations are so common in the industry that they cannot identify source… In fact, in the case of the [Stratocaster] body outline, this configuration is so common that it is depicted as a generic electric guitar in a dictionary.”
Similar legal trademark applications had previously been rejected, both in the UK and the rest of Europe, so it always looked like Fender was onto a loser in the US, if only through international precedent. NB. Gibson also lost a similar action against PRS for its single cut Les Paul body shape in 2005.
The names, ‘Stratocaster’ and ‘Strat’ are, however, the sole property of FMIC, as is the exact iconic headstock design is a registered trademark in the US, Canada and Europe.
A few famous guitarists have been honoured with artist signature Stratocaster models, including Jimi Hendrix, Dick Dale, Buddy Guy, Eric Clapton David Gilmour, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Yngwie Malmsteen, Jeff Beck, Ritchie Blackmore, Billy Corgan, Dave Murray, Kenny Wayne Shepherd and Jim Root, amongst many others.
“I mainly use Stratocasters. I like a lot of different kinds of guitars, but for what I do, it seems that a Stratocaster is the most versatile. I can pretty much get any sound out of it, and I use stock pickups” – Stevie Ray Vaughan (1954‑1990)
The American Rolling Stone magazine awarded the Stratocaster ‘American Icon’ status in 2003. The magazine’s senior editor, David Fricke, said that the Stratocaster is rock & roll’s “ultimate guitar … a knockout package of the sex and futurism in the music itself.”
In 2003, the author was able, for a few short minutes, to get his hands on a black Strat owned by Stevie Ray Vaughan. The guitar was in the vault of the Hard Rock Café in London (a former bank). NB. I also ‘played’ a left‑handed Gibson Flying V owned by Jimi Hendrix. Modesty, however, prevents me from posting photos.
If you like your guitars diminutive, there are plenty of miniature models of the Stratocaster (note: other guitar makes and models are available!). Also, if you feel so inclined, you can get your hands on an official LEGO® Ideas Fender Stratocaster Guitar Set 21329 (priced at around £120‑140GBP), which includes a 1970s Stratocaster with red or black interchangeable bodies, a model ‘65 Fender Princeton Reverb valve combo amp with footswitch, guitar stand, strap and lead. The kit comprises 1,074 pieces and the completed model is 14” (36cm) tall. What’s not to like? It might even make my Christmas list if Santa thinks I’ve been a good boy (hint, hint Mr Claus).
In contrast, if you like your guitars massive, the world’s largest playable Stratocaster apparently stands an impressive 13 feet (3.96m) high. Fender even allowed their name to be used on the sizeable headstock. It was listed on eBay in the US in 2012 for $79,999. A matching playable Telecaster was also constructed.
The familiar image of the Stratocaster can be found all over the world and in many different ways, over the years. There have been numerous sculptures made as an homage to the Stratocaster in a variety of materials including metal, glass, plastic, wood, clay, etc. Massive Stratocaster sculptures feature outside many Hard Rock Café Hotels as well as outside the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. The instrument is immortalised at Jimi Hendrix’s grave and a statue in his home city of Seattle, Washington State, USA. In addition, the Stratocaster is integral to Rory Gallagher’s statue in his home town of Ballyshannon, County Donegal, Ireland. In fine art, graphic design and film, the Stratocaster is a familiar theme. There have been many impressive Stratocaster cake designs to whet your palate. The Strat has also been used on ornaments, clothing and to inspire jewellery such as pins, earrings, key rings, necklaces, rings, etc. For gamers, the Stratocaster was used as a controller for the Sony PlayStation Guitar Hero video game.
Some Fender Stratocaster lists
Some list‑o‑phobes prefer narrative prose while others revel in the realm of lists and lists of lists, etc. So, for the avid list‑o‑philes out there, here are three lists of Stratocaster stuff.
Ten famous artists forever associated with their famous Fender Stratocasters (in alphabetical order):
Eric Clapton – ‘Blackie’ (1956/1957) and ‘Brownie’ (1956)
Rory Gallagher (1961)
David Gilmour – ‘Black Strat’ serial number #0001 (1969)
George Harrison – ‘Rocky’ (1962)
Mark Knopfler serial number #68354 (1961)
Yngwie Malmsteen – ‘Duck’ (1971)
Robbie Robertson – ‘The Last Waltz’ (1954)
Nile Rodgers – ‘The Hitmaker’ (1960s)
Eddie Van Halen – ‘Frankenstrat’ (1970s?)
Stevie Ray Vaughan – ‘Number One’ (1962/1963) and ‘Lenny’ (1963/1964)
Forty famous Stratocaster players (in alphabetical order):
Randy Bachman (Bachman‑Turner Overdrive)
Jeff Beck
Ritchie Blackmore (Deep Purple, Rainbow)
Joe Bonamassa
Robert Cray
Dick Dale
Tom Delonge (Green Day)
The Edge (U2)
John Frusciante (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
Rory Gallagher
Lowell George (Little Feat)
Janick Gers (Iron Maiden)
Buddy Guy
George Harrison (The Beatles)
Jimi Hendrix
Steve Hillage
Buddy Holly
Ernie Isley (The Isley Brothers)
Eric Johnson
Carol Kaye
Ed King (Lynyrd Skynyrd)
Mark Knopfler (Dire Straits)
Mike McReady (Pearl Jam)
Yngwie Malmsteen
Hank Marvin (The Shadows)
John Mayer
Dave Murray (Iron Maiden)
Ed O’Brien (Radiohead)
Bonnie Raitt
Chris Rea
Jim Root (Slipknot)
Richie Sambora (Bon Jovi)
Adrian Smith (Iron Maiden)
Ty Tabor (King’s X)
Richard Thompson (Fairport Convention)
Peter Townshend (The Who)
Robin Trower
Eddie Van Halen
Cory Wong (Vulfpeck)
Ronnie Wood (The Rolling Stones)
Finally, nine very, VERY expensive Fender Stratocasters owned or once‑owned by famous guitarists (in value order – low‑high):
George Gruhn’s Fender Stratocaster #0100. Price: c.$250,000
Stevie Ray Vaughan’s Fender Stratocaster, ‘Lenny’. Price: $623,500 in 2004
Eric Clapton’s ‘Blackie’ Fender Stratocaster. Price: $959,500 in 2004
Bob Dylan’s 1964 ‘Newport’ Fender Stratocaster. Price: $965,000 in 2013
Jimi Hendrix’s 1968 ‘Izabella’ Fender Stratocaster. Price: $1,650,000 in 2000
David Gilmour’s 1954 Fender Stratocaster #0001. Price: $1.815 million in 2019
Jimi Hendrix’s 1964 Fender Stratocaster. Price: $2.1 million in 2015
The ‘Reach Out To Asia’ Fender Stratocaster. Price: $2.7 million in 2005
David Gilmour’s 1969 ‘Black Strat’. Price: $3.975 million in 2019
Very shortly, there will be a tenth entry to add to the list. Rory Gallagher’s famous 1961 Stratocaster will be auctioned at Bonhams in London on 17 October 2024, after Dónal Gallagher, Rory’s brother and manager, made the difficult decision to sell the cherished guitar thirty years after the guitarist’s death. Rory’s iconic Strat is being auctioned along with other instruments and gear from ‘The Rory Gallagher Collection’ and is estimated to reach between £700,000 and £1 million (and may well reach more).
CRAVE Guitars’ Fender Stratocasters
I won’t reiterate all the details of CRAVE Guitars’ Fender Stratocasters here. If you want more information, follow the links to the feature pages on each specific instrument. None of CRAVE Guitars’ Stratocasters are ‘standard’ models per se – there is something non‑standard about all of them. These four instruments show some of the diversity of the CBS‑era Stratocasters and show off some of the idiosyncrasies that make the diversity fascinating to me.
1977 Fender Stratocaster – My first ‘real’ Fender guitar. I traded in my lovely 1978 Fender Mustang for this baby and it has been with me ever since. I bought it second hand over 45 years ago and still counting. It certainly evokes the 1970s with its natural polyester finish. I prefer rosewood fingerboards and hardtail bridges, so this suited me perfectly at the time. Overly fixated detractors will moan about the large headstock, the ‘bullet’ truss rod adjuster, the 3‑bolt neck plate and the underpowered pickups. Personally, I don’t give a hoot what they think and I have never experienced any problems with neck stability or tuning. It remains one of my favourite guitars.
1979 Fender Stratocaster Silver Anniversary – Fender’s first commemorative (25th) anniversary guitar, finished in lustrous Porsche silver. This comes complete with its certificate of authenticity and anniversary (4‑bolt) neck plate. Like most Anniversary models, it is too heavy for a Strat but I like it nevertheless. Ignore the rather crass ‘ANNIVERSARY’ logo on the upper horn. Remember, this is the where the whole anniversary model trend began. It is amazing to think that this guitar is already 45 years old and, here we are now at the 70th anniversary. This means that this very clean example is closer in years to the 1954 Strat than it is to the 2024 anniversary model by a clear 20 years. Crazy!
1983 Fender Stratocaster ‘Dan Smith’ – Fender was restructuring at the time under the guidance of finance director Dan Smith, charged by CBS with rejuvenating Fender’s fortunes. Keeping manufacturing costs under control while producing better quality instruments was key to success. Now, I am going to be heretical. I have never liked the original Stratocaster’s 1 volume, 2 tone control layout. This model dispenses with the second tone control leaving one master tone. The consequential empty hole in the scratchplate was used for the jack socket, meaning all the electrics were in one place – good idea. The ‘iconic’ jack socket plate of the past was discarded (at least for a while). Similarly, the Freeflyte® vibrato system dispensed with the cavity on the rear of the body, simplifying the construction process further. The resulting ‘two knobber’ Strat, as it was humorously nicknamed, is certainly an oddity in the Fender canon. Everybody seems to hate them but I love the simplicity and uniqueness. Lovely colour too.
1983 Fender Stratocaster Elite – Another CBS‑era Stratocaster and another oddity. If you are looking for a traditional approach, look elsewhere. Delving under the familiar façade is a guitar that bears hardly any relationship to the first ones off the production line in 1954. The electrics feature ‘noiseless’ pickups (with a dummy coil), active electronics, unique 3‑button pickup selection, unique knobs and that is just for starters. The bridge assembly is a Freeflyte hardtail and the jack socket is now on the edge of the body. It was a short‑lived experiment but with many influential features that would reappear over time. The weight associated with the 25th Anniversary models was also being addressed.
Over the years, I have owned modern FMIC‑era Stratocasters and they have all moved on to better homes. After becoming captivated by vintage guitars, the more modern guitars just felt mass‑produced, generic, lacking character and personality. That can’t be said of the ones listed here.
Not all Stratocasters are Stratocasters. Confused? You will be…
1982 Fender Bullet H2 – After Fender withdrew the lovely offset ‘student’ models including the Musicmaster, Duo‑Sonic, Mustang and Bronco, they were replaced with the Bullet range. When I first started collecting, I hated what they’d done but I’ve come to find them intriguing. This Bullet H2 is actually a very good instrument. OK, so the Telecaster neck on a Stratocaster body does look odd but dig behind the aesthetics and the quad single coil pickups combined into two hum‑cancelling pairs, along with the unique pickup selection proves to be quite interesting. Fender were, again, experimenting with the Stratocaster fundamentals to see what would work and what wouldn’t before using features on the Strat. The now quite rare ‘Made in USA’ Bullet H2 was an inevitable but fascinating dead end but one I’m glad they tried out. Remember that this was long before the Mexican built guitars fulfilled the role of the now‑defunct Bullet.
1981 Fender Lead I – Alongside the budget Bullet, Fender wanted to fill the gap between the budget line and the long‑established, much more expensive pro‑level models. The mid‑range ‘Made in USA’ Fender Lead came in three different types (I, II and II depending on pickup configuration). The neck is all‑Strat, while the body is definitely derived from the Stratocaster but the proportions aren’t quite ‘right’ and it can look ungainly from the wrong angle. The Van Halen‑like single humbucking bridge pickup and dual selector switches provide a different range of sound compared to a conventional Stratocaster. It is a very nicely put together instrument and plays very well. However, the Fender Lead is one model that certainly justifies the description of one of the ‘lost Fenders’ of the CBS‑era. Over in Japan at the same time, Fender was experimenting with the format in other ways, without affecting Fender’s valuable American‑made Stratocaster reputation. Ultimately, though, the Lead was another, albeit fascinating, dead end. Sorry, no floorboard photo of this one. For the curious, the neck is a stanard Stratocaster neck and fingerboard but with the ‘Lead’ decal on the headstock.
These six guitars go to show what can be done to differentiate models using a stable platform on which to try out new and different things (although that is tautology because, by definition, new is different).
The Official 2024 Fender 70th Anniversary Stratocaster®
To celebrate the last seven decades, Fender has an enviable array of 70th anniversary Stratocasters. The following images courtesy of the fine people at FMIC, show two contrasting 70th anniversary Stratocaster models, revealing the immaculate manufacturing and echoing the specification difference between 1954 and 2024 models. Expect these to be classified as ‘vintage’ around the time of the Stratocaster’s centennial in 2054. The UK retail prices for these two beauties as at July 2024 are:
Top – Limited Edition 70th Anniversary 1954 Stratocaster® Heavy Relic®. Price: £4,899GBP Bottom – 70th Anniversary American Professional® II Fender Stratocaster®. Price: £2,169GBP
At the time of writing, the cheapest 70th anniversary commemorative Stratocaster made by Fender appears to be the Mexican made, Fender 70th Anniversary Player Stratocaster PF, 2‑Colour Sunburst, priced at a mere £699GBP. Bargain.
For further information on 70th anniversary Stratocaster models, take a look at Fender’s website and any retailers stocking Fender products.
If you want a piece of commemorative Fender history that is sort of affordable, go for one of the 2024 70th anniversary models. The Stratocaster won’t have another 70th anniversary after all. Let’s face it, you probably couldn’t afford a genuine original 1954 Strat which, for info, is probably somewhere in the region of $60,000‑$200,000 in 2024. That’s an awful lot of pocket money in anyone’s book. Expect another anniversary model at 75 (in 2029).
CRAVE Guitars’ hobbyhorse moment – 1970s Fenders
Excuse me for a moment, while I have a personal, opinionated rant, outburst, tirade, bombast, invective, broadside, diatribe, polemic and a few other nouns to similar effect. Hold on to your hats, folks, here we go…
I wholeheartedly reject the cynics’ simplistic argument that states that all pre‑CBS Strats are great and everything else since, particularly from the 1970s, was rubbish. That sweeping generalisation is widely promulgated as ‘fact’ and it isn’t helpful when looking at individual instruments. I would go as far as to say that such assertions are ignorant and biased and I steadfastly refuse to jump on that bandwagon (NB. Another American idiom that comes from mid‑19th Century, when political candidates would use an actual open wagon during campaigns and parades to appeal to voters. People would literally jump onto the vehicle to show support). The ‘golden era’ of the 1950s had their own major gaffs. Just look at the very early Fender Esquires without a neck truss rod or the early Gibson Les Pauls with the wrong neck angle!
However, I recognise that I am in the minority and what I say will potentially undermine my credibility in some people’s views. Just wait until collector prices spiral beyond all reasonable sensibility then that perspective will change. The elitists will talk up the 1970s’ Strats (the next‑in‑line to increase in value now that the 1960s are largely unobtainable – even post‑1965 CBS‑era ones!). The greedy prospectors will want to attract top dollar and get the credit for being ahead of the game. All I am saying is that there are good and bad examples throughout the last seven decades and that one shouldn’t assume that something is the truth just because enough self‑opinionated people with an axe to grind say it is true. Just sayin’.
The guitar that I have owned longer than any other is my 1977 Fender Stratocaster hardtail. I think it looks lovely, plays very well and sounds great. I don’t have any issues with the polyester finish, the stability of the 3‑bolt neck joint, the ‘bullet’ truss rod adjuster, the pickups, the 3‑way pickup selector switch or the ‘F’ on the neck plate. If it was a ‘bad’ guitar, I wouldn’t have kept it for 46 years. I am still happy with it and grateful for the opportunity to own and play it whenever I feel like it. Suck on that, sycophants!
Some people bang on endlessly about the dire quality of CBS‑era Strats. Well, that didn’t deter possibly the world’s G.O.A.T. guitarist, one James Marshall Hendrix from using them. If he could do what he did armed with a CBS‑era Strat, perhaps the naysayers should moderate and reconsider their often over‑stated prejudices and criticisms. Get over it people. If ya don’t like ‘em, don’t buy ‘em and shut up with the whinging and whining already. I am sure that too many people simply accept and reiterate this apocryphal and questionable ‘fact’ without doing their own due diligence. Meanwhile, I seem isolated in my regard for 1970s’ Fenders but I stand by it. It’s called integrity.
Guitarists tend to hate change. CBS introduced a raft of new features. For instance, the ‘large headstock’ appeared in December 1965. Allegedly, Leo Fender designed the larger headstock to accommodate a larger, more visible logo before he sold the company that bears his name, so don’t blame CBS for that one. Even the stylised ‘F’ that appeared on the neck plate caused apoplexy. Why? Many associate Fender’s innovative Micro Tilt neck adjustment (sometimes referred to as Tilt Neck adjustment) and its 3‑bolt neck plate with CBS‑era Stratocasters but the feature wasn’t actually introduced until mid‑1971. There were some issues with over‑sized neck pockets, which is what actually caused the ‘neck instability’ problem. After a decade, Fender reverted to 4‑bolt neck joints (and smaller headstocks) by mid‑1981. Traditionalists also reacted negatively to other ‘new’ features including the ‘bullet’ truss rod adjuster at the headstock end of the neck, cast bridges, cast bridge saddles, and more stable and durable polyester finishes. It didn’t matter whether changes were better or worse, some stuck to quasi‑religious dogma and collective prejudice. I challenge such ill‑perceived hallowed ground. All this malarkey just goes to show that you can’t please anyone any of the time. Nuff said. Deep sigh. Count to 70…
The Fender Stratocaster: Judgement Day
After all this, you might be curious as to what I think about the venerable Fender Stratocaster. I guess it is time for me to give my personal opinion. To do this, I have to recognise its past, present and future and to acknowledge its highly respected place in music. I respect the genius of Leo Fender, although he had nothing to do with the ‘real’ Stratocaster since 1965. I also have to set aside all the diverse views of others and concentrate on my own assessment for a few paragraphs. Here, I am going to be controversial and provocative, so brace yourselves.
Let’s begin with the attraction of the exalted icon that is the Fender Stratocaster. If I didn’t have one, I would want one. No question there. There is also a reason why my longest‑owned guitar is a Stratocaster. It carries with it a strong sense of a comfortable long‑term relationship. However, a strong obsession to own one doesn’t carry an enormous amount of weight when considering what the Stratocaster actually is and does. Stratocaster ownership at its most basic for many people could be construed as a tick‑in‑the‑box exercise and, perhaps, the ‘genuine article’ represents an aspirational status symbol.
Going back to basics though, the Stratocaster is fundamentally (now) just a mass‑produced musical instrument, constructed out of the same materials using the same manufacturing processes as numerous others. There is little to differentiate one factory product from the next. Think back to Wikipedia’s description at the start of this article. Bland and straightforward. The Stratocaster may have been space age and futuristic back in the 1950s and now it is possibly the most ubiquitous of electric guitars on the planet alongside the Telecaster, Les Paul, SG and ES‑335, so we tend to take its presence in our lives for granted nowadays. It even looks a bit traditionalist, like a septuagenarian wearing a pair of pressed corduroy trousers and comfy slippers. Some of its appeal is the aesthetic as much as its functionality. As a professional musician’s tool, the Stratocaster’s excellence set a high standard early on and it continues to fulfil its pro‑level role today. Again, I’m not arguing against all that. If the Stratocaster didn’t exist, there is still plenty of choice amongst the alternatives. In the absence of the Strat, professional working musicians like Hendrix, Beck, Gilmour, Clapton, Rodgers and Gallagher would simply have been driven to use something else.
If I reluctantly have to admit that I am a low‑level guitar collector – both in number and in value – the Stratocaster compares favourably with many other electric solid body guitars. However, it is not the be‑all‑and‑end‑all of electric guitars. It just cannot be. There are things that other instruments do better than the Strat and against which the Stratocaster simply cannot compete. It plays well, sounds great, it is (generally) light and a very flexible instrument, well‑suited to many musical genres, especially when adapted to a specific guitarist’s need. Beyond that, though, I don’t regale the Stratocaster with the exaggerated plaudits that many Fender die‑hards do. It is one of innumerable instruments available on the market today and it has to earn its keep against stiff opposition. It isn’t unassailable and it doesn’t constitute an absolute monopoly. Admittedly, the world would be far worse off if there were no Stratocasters but great music would still be made. The Stratocaster just happens to have been around a very long time and has been hugely influential in the development of modern music. BUT, it is the guitarist that makes the magic, not just the instrument. It is the synergy between the two – the guitarist and their guitar – that makes some great music unique. Give any cheap Strat knock‑off to a guitar legend and they’ll make it sound great. Give a great Strat to a novice and it won’t.
If Gibson made a mid‑range electric, with a body built out of multiple cuts of wood, with a bolt‑on maple neck, it would be criticised from launch until it was withdrawn. Gibson has actually tried to do just that several times but you won’t find one in the shops today. So, the Strat’s construction really isn’t anything special today, and neither are the electronics. The basic specification just doesn’t stand out in today’s crowded marketplace. The Strat has traded on its heritage and its legacy for decades. Its future is also constrained by the very same thing. Others have taken the concept further, for instance the super‑Strats of the 1980s.
Vintage prices for all‑original pre‑CBS Strats are unashamedly unobtainable for the average player and, in most cases that status is only warranted by scarcity, hyperbole and the economics of supply and demand. The ‘law of lucre’, as I call it, strikes again. Regular readers will know that I have an anathema for wealthy elitists solely seeking profit from precious artefacts locked away in their personal vaults, thereby barring access to the hoi polloi (NB. from ancient Greek meaning ‘the many’ or ‘the common people’). Many of us will never get their hands on the rarest early models and we cannot judge for ourselves whether they are really special musical instruments or not. The result is that the 1954‑1965 Strats are put on such a high pedestal that most of us can only look up at and aspire to ownership, and regretfully a wish that will probably never be achieved. That, though, has nothing to do with today’s genuine pragmatic merit. There is simply too much vintage mojo lore out there to make any real‑world sense of it all.
Extrapolating that previous point further. If you’ve got this far, you’ll have seen the outrageous prices that famous vintage Stratocasters, owned by famous guitarists and carrying the vital photographic and paperwork records, go for on the vintage guitar market. While I can understand the appeal of owning an important part of music heritage, do the actual guitars themselves really deserve 7‑figure prices that elitists can afford to spend on them for dubious reasons? When the uber‑expensive guitars were originally made, they were just another Stratocaster off the Fender production line. The only difference between the ‘celebrity’ guitars and ordinary Stratocasters is purely down to their provenance. The sad thing is that they are now way too valuable to be played regularly on stage where people can see and hear them being used for their intended purpose. The same holds true for guitars behind museum glass cases and horded away in elitist collectors’ personal treasuries. It is a lofty, rarefied atmosphere well out of my, and I’m sure most people’s, reach. You can probably tell that I’m not a fan of this hoarding practice. However, it is what it is and there is no point bleating about such an anti‑pluralist system. Doh! I just did.
The Stratocaster’s presence today can be viewed a little like MacDonald’s or Starbucks. They are instantly recognisable products and, most of the time, you know exactly what you are going to get. That consistency, reliability and longevity is very important for the conservative brigades out there. There is nothing wrong in that but sometimes a connoisseur meal or an instant coffee will do just as well. Quality, ultimately, is subjective – it actually doesn’t mean that something is good or bad, it means that something is ideally fit‑for‑purpose. People tend to use the words ‘quality’ and ‘characteristic’ interchangeably, confused by what they actually mean. After all, you wouldn’t wear a pair of Christian Louboutin shoes to wade knee deep in a sewer drain and you wouldn’t wear a pair of threadbare dirty trainers to a swanky nightclub. Or would you? Quality is not a measurable absolute, it is relative and subjective.
The worthiness or desirability imbued by a company like Fender and a product like the Stratocaster is ultimately determined by the customer – not by the likes of me… or Fender for that matter. It is the customer that makes an economic decision about whether a product meets the end consumer’s perceived need (or want).
CRAVE Guitars’ whole raison d’être is Cool & Rare American Vintage Electric Guitars, so a new Stratocaster – even a ‘heavy relic’, ‘vintage inspired’, signature model or Custom Shop one‑off – does absolutely nothing for me. Sorry FMIC. For many others, an old, used and imperfect guitar, especially one with a disputed reputation like a CBS‑era Strat, isn’t for them. The beauty of the market is that there is plenty of choice and all options have validity.
Purely from a practical point of view, I personally find the Strat’s 25½” (647mm) scale length just a bit too much of a stretch for my short, stubby fingers. The shorter Gibson scale length of 24¾” (629mm) is sometimes more comfortable and I have a fondness for Fender’s 24” (609mm) short scale guitars, for instance the Jaguar and Mustang et al. I prefer hardtails too, so the vibrato is not a ‘must have’ for me. As mentioned earlier in the article, I simply do not like the Strat’s standard 1 volume, 2 control layout. In addition I sometimes like more oomph from pickups. It’s not just that the Stratocaster generally sports single coil pickups, I am thinking here of the sheer grunt of a good P90 for instance or even the punchy refinement of Fender’s own Seth Lover‑designed CuNiFe (copper, nickel and iron alloy) ‘wide range’ humbucking pickup (1971‑1979), as used on the Thinline, Deluxe and Custom Telecasters as well as the original Starcaster (not the re‑issues!). Incidentally, that last point also goes to prove that the CBS‑era Fender came up with some amazing stuff.
Fundamentally, the Stratocaster, when viewed objectively for what it really is today, is just another guitar, made out of wood, metal and plastic, the same as millions of others. What makes the Stratocaster special is its history and that it is, after everything that has been said, a very good guitar. I am a Stratocaster fan but I am not a Stratocaster fanatic. You may consider my conclusions glib and pedestrian or even blasphemous. Let us be clear, I am not screaming from the rooftop, “Emperor’s new clothes” (NB. A literary folk tale by Danish author Hans Christian Anderson, 1837), but I think I am being genuinely pragmatic and realistic. When push comes to shove (NB. Another American idiom that seems to come from the novel, ‘Black Thunder’ by Arna Wendell, 1936), I like playing a lot of different guitars, the Stratocaster included. They all have their foibles and respective pros & cons. There is no single ‘perfect’ guitar in my view. There simply can’t be. One good thing is for certain, the legendary Fender Stratocaster isn’t going anywhere, anytime soon. There, I have put my candid and forthright opinion on the public record for good or bad. Long live the Fender Stratocaster. Respect!
Final thoughts about the Fender Stratocaster
Seventy years down and who knows how many more to go in the Stratocaster’s illustrious and storied past, present and future. Let us hope that the current economic troubles pass and future generations of guitarists can continue to revel in the guitar’s magic. Whether you are a Strat fan or not, it cannot possibly be overstated just how influential the Stratocaster has been on the music industry from manufacturing, retail, song writing, recording, live performance, collecting and so on.
Whether it’s just me or not, I don’t recall such a fuss being made about the Telecaster at 70. Actually, I shall go against prevailing opinion and say that I actually prefer the Telecaster to the Stratocaster. Why? It seems more versatile despite having at least one fewer pickup, one fewer tone controls and (generally) no vibrato. There is also something so ruggedly utilitarian about the Tele, while the Strat is more svelte and comely. Also, the Tele has had a wider range of variant including the Esquire, the Custom, Deluxe and Thinline. The latter three all introduced during the CBS era and the latter two, I particularly like with their ‘wide range’ humbuckers. Then again, I also like the Jazzmaster, Jaguar, Mustang (and its siblings) and Starcaster, so go figure. Never mind all the other brands out there.
Fender currently has over 100 Stratocaster models on the market across all its lines and price points, barring all the custom options. The downside of being spoilt for choice is deciding which is right for the individual consumer. A massive wall of Stratocasters in a showroom can be intimidating. When I bought my first Stratocaster, I had a choice of fingerboard material (maple or rosewood), colour (fairly limited standard off‑the‑shelf finishes) and bridge type (vibrato or hardtail). That was it. I went for rosewood (always my inclination), natural (it was the 1970s!) and hardtail (more solid and reliable). The pickups at the time, while widely criticised, although I find they have a lovely ‘hollow’ tone to them, which I find unique and tasteful. Heck, what do I know, eh?
At the time of writing, Fender released a very low cost Squier Stratocaster in an attempt to compete with Far Eastern Stratocaster copies that are flooding American and European markets. Not for the first time: it is like the 1970s happening all over again. This time around, though, the knock‑off importers are far more aggressive, ruthless and harder to control through established legal and regulatory frameworks, therefore posing a significant risk to the western guitar‑making economy. The Chinese in particular are not going to be deterred by the likes of Fender taking legal action without Federal support. The deluge of well‑made, cheap copies of US classics like the Stratocaster could mean the end of American guitar supremacy. Once sincerely hopes not.
Time for a quick word about hybrid Stratocasters. The original Fender Stratacoustic was made by Fender 2000‑2005, comprising an acoustic guitar‑type construction with a vaguely Stratocaster body outline. The innovative successor to the Statacoustic, currently known as the Fender Acoustasonic® Stratocaster, was launched at NAMM in 2019 with its ground breaking construction and on‑board modelling electronics. People remain divided as to whether it is a ‘real’ Strat or not. While the Acoustasonic Stratocaster (along with its Acoustasonic Telecaster and Jazzmaster stablemates) has certainly received positive press since its launch, it/they won’t be to everyone’s taste. The Acoustasonics certainly bear little resemblance to the classic vintage guitars that inspired them, either visually or sonically. You pays yer money and makes your choice.
It is difficult to predict where the strategic future lies for the Stratocaster. Fender may have a true icon in their hands but its formidable legacy also limits what they can do with it that hasn’t already been done, either by Fender or someone else. As mentioned above, it is basically the same guitar now as it was in 1954. Better? Worse? Well, the answer to that question depends on the individual consumer and what they crave (sic!). The safe route would be to stick to the formula and make more of the same but will that be enough to sustain a successful business model? One thing is for sure, Fender isn’t going to pension off the venerable Stratocaster off any time soon.
I can’t help wondering that, if the guesstimate of 180‑200 million Stratocasters mentioned earlier in the article is in the right ballpark, where are they all now? Some will have been destroyed (thanks Pete Townshend et al). Personally, I can vouch for four of them but that leaves an enormous number still out there somewhere.
Do I have a dream Stratocaster that I would give almost anything to own? Actually… nope. I know that may sound strange but it’s true. Owning a pre‑CBS Strat would be nice but I don’t feel compelled to sell my soul for one – because that is what it would take – they are SO expensive now and, frankly, not worth it. I have no interest in acquiring an artist‑owned Strat with provenance. It is just an ordinary guitar owned by someone famous. Any more Stratocasters beyond the ones I have already got (and grateful to have) would be around the margins and diminishing returns. I certainly wouldn’t turn down a 1950s or 1960s Strat if I was offered one though. Dear Santa (again)…
So, HAPPY BIRTHDAY Fender Stratocaster! I am willing to speculate that, back in Fullerton, CA in 1954, when Leo Fender, Bill Carson, George Fullerton and Freddie Tavares were formulating a new guitar model to supplement the austere workhorse that was the Telecaster, they had no idea that their new creation would still be highly celebrated 70 years later, almost completely unchanged. While we may take the Strat very much for granted these days, it is clear is that the Stratocaster has a strong future for years and decades to come, as long as Fender strategically looks after their prize cash cow.
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Album of the Month’
Given the subject matter of this month’s article, it makes sense to feature a diehard Stratocaster player. Of all the guitarists to brandish a Fender Stratocaster from start to finish, this month’s selection may seem to be a bit off the beaten track. Not only is Irish blues rock guitarist Rory Gallagher a massively underrated musician and song writer but also the album I’ve chosen isn’t necessarily the one that most Gallagher commentators would choose. Rory’s reputation as a live performer was phenomenal and many believe that the energy and dynamism never transferred from the stage to the studio. Well that may be true but any recording by the ‘G‑Man’ is better than none. For many guitarists, Rory was hugely influential with a unique flair that subtly blended Celtic folk styles with the fiery blues and conventional hard rock.
Rory Gallagher – Against The Grain (1975) – The late, great Irish guitarist and Stratocaster wielder, Rory Gallagher released his 5th studio album and 7th overall, ‘Against The Grain’ in October 1975. The album was his first for the fledgling Chrysalis record label. It may not be his best or most well‑known blues rock album but it struck a chord (sic!) with me when it came out. That perspective shouldn’t downplay the quality of Rory’s abilities that shine through on this release. ‘Against The Grain’ demonstrates that he was so very much more than just another wannabe bluesman with long hair, denim jeans, a check shirt and a worn out guitar. Note the album cover photographs, which feature his iconic 1961 Fender Stratocaster.
The author was lucky enough to see Rory Gallagher with his trusty 1961 Fender Stratocaster (amongst others) a couple of times in the 1970s. He was certainly a livewire powerhouse dominating the stage with his regular band comprising, Rod de’Ath (drums), Gerry McAvoy (bass) and Lou Martin (Keyboards). Sadly, Rory died of MRSA complications following a liver transplant in 1995 at the age of just 45, leaving a lot of people’s lives enhanced by his presence and his music, me included. A fitting tribute to a great Stratocaster player.
There were many other contenders for this month’s plaudits, including ‘Made in Japan’ (1972) by Deep Purple, ‘Performing This Week… Live At Ronnie Scott’s’ (2008) by Jeff Beck, ‘Are You Experienced’ (1967) by Jimi Hendrix, ‘L’ (1976) by Steve Hillage and ‘Live’ (1976) by Robin Trower. It is interesting that there is not much there beyond the 1970s. We desperately need more guitar heroes from modern times to keep things relevant and up‑to‑date.
Tailpiece
Wow! I bet you are all well and truly Strat‑ed out now. Unlike some multi‑part series that I’ve published in the past, this is a one‑off. That means it can stand alone and (hopefully) enjoyed in one sitting. I hope that, in amongst all the somewhat necessary prosaic knowledge about a worthy industry icon, there was something interesting that was new. Believe it or not, I had to do an awful lot of digging to come up with some of the off‑the‑beaten‑track info and I hope it was worth it. Note to self: I must limit writing about guitars and get back to playing them.
Next month will, I think, go back to a reasonably well‑established theme. After that, I am totally clueless about what I’m going to ramble on endlessly about. It seems that we’ll all have to wait and see, won’t we (rhetorical)?
For now, though, it is time to enjoy the balmy late summer season 2024 (up here in the Northern Hemisphere) and hope that unhinged megalomaniacs don’t blast us all out of existence out of malice. There is a very good reason why the Cold War concept of Mutually Assured Destruction was abbreviated to MAD. Just what is their deranged dealio? For the life of me, I cannot comprehend why deranged despots feel compelled to behave the way they do. In the meantime, I will reiterate my naïve but important demand for global peace and the right of every citizen to live in freedom without fear. Apologies again, but this is my only mouthpiece.
Finally, from the lovable lore of Looney Tunes, “That’s all folks!”
Truth, peace, love, and guitar music be with you always. Until next time…
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Quote of the Month’: “The main difference between solitude and isolation is the positivity of hope and the avoidance of fear”
BIENVENUE, WILLKOMMEN, BIENVENIDO, Velkommen, yokoso, huānyíng, welcome and a warm summer howdy one and all, as long as you come in the spirit of truth, peace, love and music. With escalating military tensions, political turmoil, economic volatility and social unrest rampant pretty much everywhere you look, this is one safe place where you can come as a sanctuary from the world’s ills and an oasis of positive karma.
It’s been a while since CRAVE Guitars has delved deeply into a specific modern musical genre, so I thought I’d have another go at one that interests me. This time, the focus is on Heavy Metal, or just Metal, as it is now known to cover all its various facets. Love or loathe the deep dark dungeons and ominous oubliettes of moody Metal mania, you can’t ignore it or its massive global appeal.
“Still heavy man!” Yup. Who would have thought that a casual throwaway remark from the beatnik and hippie counter‑cultures of the 1950s and 1960s would end up defining something so powerfully aggressive in the 1970s, eh? Although it may not seem like it, Heavy Metal is still a relatively new genre with only 50 or so years of history. Compare that with Classical, Blues, Jazz or Country and Metal really does seem like a new kid on the block.
Metal has generated many convoluted factions and divisions of opinion over time, which leads to some fascinating dynamics in this fledgling genre. Metal has also faced its fair share of controversy, criticism, and censorship over the years and has survived all the turbulence. While most of us thankfully live in the ‘free world’, spare a thought for those less fortunate. Metal music is either illegal or driven underground by state oppression in several countries including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Russia, North Korea and China. Probably not surprisingly, these countries tend to be autocracies that reject any sort of assumed deviant subversion. Metal is seen as sacrilegious blasphemy to conservative religions and as insurrectionary, seditious propaganda to paranoid dictators. No real revelations there. To quote the Rolling Stones, “It’s only rock & roll but I like it” (1974).
Many readers will think that I’ve drawn the boundaries too broad (NB. it is to provide relevant context) while others will think the boundaries are too confining (NB. there is already way, way too much material to fit into a full‑blown encyclopaedia). Writing articles like this just proves you can’t please any of the people any of the time. The scope of the subject matter established c.1970 is extensive, so apologies upfront for another long but ultimately superficial article. Bear with me, though, it’s worth the effort.
“Heavy metal is a universal energy; it’s the sound of a volcano. It’s rock, it’s earth‑shattering. Somewhere in our primal being, we understand” – Billy Corgan (Smashing Pumpkins, 1967‑)
At least Metal in its widest sense is mainly a guitar‑centric genre. CRAVE Guitars’ last two genre articles (Dub Reggae [August 2023] and Ambient Electronica [September 2023]) were less associated with guitar music. Guitars are great. Guitar music is more greaterer.
Although one may not consciously think too much about it, electric guitar (including bass) is really the only contemporary musical instrument that sounds spectacular when heavily distorted. Metal would certainly not be the same without it. Thankfully.
Judging by Kirk Hammett of Metallica’s purchase of Peter Green’s/Gary Moore’s vintage 1959 sunburst Gibson Les Paul Standard, ‘Greeny’ in 2014, Metal also involves some serious vintage guitar tone. Let’s not forget why we’re here, after all.
After the three previous articles exploring Artificial Intelligence, I can state quite categorically that no AI was used in the research and writing of this piece of amateur, entirely biological indulgence. Enjoy.
“I associate heavy metal with fantasy because of the tremendous power that the music delivers” – Christopher Lee (actor, 1922‑2016)
It is Metal time
Yup, it is time to get down and dirty folks. Pile on the distortion and then pile on some more and, just for good measure, a sprinkling of yet more filthy fuzz on top. Actually, good recording engineers will tell guitarists to dial down the dirt and they will assert that it is surprising how little distortion you need to sound heavy. Studio producers stress that too much distortion makes the sound all mushy, loses definition and increases compression, resulting in the guitar’s sound getting lost in the mix. That’s all very well but just look at the sheer number of high gain guitar pickups, effect pedals and muscle amps out there. People love oodles of distorted guitar. Distortion isn’t just amorphous noise. Distortion adds texture, enhances sustain, and provides harmonic overtones that seem to resonate with primal human senses. Guitarists use distortion that cuts through the mix to express their power, passion and raw emotion.
Sadly, long gone are the days of multiple cooking 100W valve amps and stacks of 4×12” cabinets as a stage backline but perhaps that’s just me being old school. It’s now mostly digital processing and direct input (DI) into mixing desks, front‑of‑house PAs and in‑ear monitors. One might wonder what a modern ‘silent stage’ at a metal gig feels like. Mind you, there are many different types of distortion and many different ways to achieve the desired sound, anywhere from mild clean boost, through overdrive, to distortion and, finally, fuzz. I love fuzz! When you start to ‘stack’ (i.e. daisy chain) these demonic devices, things can get very interesting.
As a listener, Metal music really needs to be played LOUD to get the most out of the visceral impact – both aural and physical. Time to turn the volume up to 11. Some people might think all Metal music sounds the same; an auditory onslaught of cacophonous clatter and tumultuous pandemonium. However, Metal subverts expectation and is actually a highly nuanced and multi‑faceted genre, and far from any semblance of sameness.
“It’s a very empowering kind of music, heavy metal is” – Rob Halford (Judas Priest, 1951)
Metal is vast, and I mean VAST. It seems to me that Metal is unique in its proliferation of sub/micro‑genres and artists that makes it both confusing and intriguing. By its nature, Metal is inclusive, however, the complexity of its family tree and the social subculture, may make it seem to neophytes as intimidating and hard to access. So perhaps we need to try and understand what Metal is and where it came from.
“When life gets tough, I just turn up the volume and let the music take me away. I don’t believe in luck, I believe in hard work and determination. If it’s too loud, you’re too old” – Lemmy Kilmister (Motörhead, 1945‑2015)
Some people take Metal far too seriously. There is a lighter side as well. While metalheads are protective, they generally don’t mind mocking their own lifestyle. Apart from the rock mockumentary antics of the film, ‘This Is Spinal Tap’ (1984), there is the phenomenon of Air Guitar. Air guitar is defined as, “a form of dance and movement in which the performer pretends to play an imaginary rock or heavy metal‑style electric guitar, including riffs and solos” (courtesy of Wikipedia). Performing air guitar is a fun diversion for many non‑guitarists, even fostering fiercely contested competition events. The technical pyrotechnics of real Metal music feeds quite well into excessive air guitar parody. Perhaps the less said about that the better.
Hee, hee!
Metal roots
First things first. Question. What exactly is Heavy Metal? Well, excluding scientific metallurgy, one definition among many that I came across was, “Heavy metal is a genre of rock music that is intense, virtuosic, and powerful, characterised by the aggressive sounds of the distorted electric guitar”.
Well that is not very helpful is it? Neither are more lengthy descriptions about what Metal is (or isn’t). Perhaps this inability to nail it down concisely is what creates the illusion of Metal mystery. Maybe you have to live Metal in order to understand Metal fully.
“It is just that heavy metal musicians write in minor keys, and when you do that, you frighten people” – Ronnie James Dio (1942‑2010)
There are many theories as to where the title Heavy Metal came from. Chemists have referred to the heavy metal elements of the periodic table for centuries. For information, the heavy metals include chromium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, titanium, vanadium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel and bismuth. American author, William S. Burroughs used the term ‘heavy metal’ in his novels, ‘The Soft Machine’ (1961) and ‘Nova Express’ (1964). A rather obscure album, ‘Featuring the Human Host and the Heavy Metal Kids’ (1968) by an equally obscure British underground band, Hapshash and the Coloured Coat introduced the term to music. ‘Heavy metal’ was also used in the lyrics of Steppenwolf’s hit single, ‘Born To Be Wild’ (1968). Band names also referenced heavy metals including, Iron (Butterfly, Maiden), Le(a)d (Zeppelin), Steel (Panther) and, tangentially, Metallica. Over the years, the term ‘heavy metal’ has become so deeply embedded in the English language that we rarely stop to think about ‘why?’
For many metalheads, Metal is much more than mere music; it represents a prominent counter‑culture movement or at least a subcultural lifestyle choice. Symbols of the Metal subculture include identifiable fashion including jewellery, hairstyles and makeup, tattoos, gestures (the characteristic symbol hand sign of the ‘devil horns’), language, alcohol/drugs, behaviour, fiction, journalism (e.g. Kerrang! and Metal Hammer) and a somewhat high‑handed disregard for other musical genres. Metal wouldn’t be Metal without headbanging (typically, shaking one’s head up and down in rhythm with music – normally around the 145BPM mark. Origin 1969/1970) and mosh pits (areas close to the stage where participants ‘dance’, push or ‘slam’ into each other. Origin: late 1970s). For the uninitiated, both can prove harmful. Take care. You could end up like Beavis and Butt‑Head.
Personally, I like metal in many (but not all) of its various incarnations, especially having been a keen music‑mad pre‑teen when the revelatory and awesome ‘Black Sabbath’ by Black Sabbath was released in 1970 to an unprepared public. It may seem tame now but there was simply nothing else like it at the time. I firmly believe that the release of this classic studio album was the moment that the Heavy Metal maelstrom was born in all its gory, gothic splendour. There may be a lot of debate about who was ‘first’, although that really doesn’t actually matter here, as Black Sabbath provided the seminal moment for Metal’s ‘Big Bang’, from which today’s entire Metal landscape has been propagated. A bold but justifiable claim.
Scratching the Metal surface
No angle grinders here folks. The core of Heavy Metal music comprises guitar, bass, drums and vocals, often accompanied with keyboards and even orchestral backing. Guitar has been an essential element, in the front and centre of most Metal for over five decades. So, that makes it worth taking an in‑depth look, at least as far as I’m concerned.
“The same sensations that you get in heavy metal are in horror movies. Heavy metal sounds evil and horror movies are evil, ha ha!” – Kirk Hammett (Metallica, 1962‑)
While many perceive Metal as the music of choice for rebellious, alienated working‑class males, it is actually most popular in the advanced, tolerant, and technologically equipped countries in the world, often endowed with a significant degree of wealth, as well as personal and political freedoms. This suggests a degree of gentrification and intellectualisation of the genre over time. Scandinavian countries, particularly Norway and Sweden, are often cited as the happiest places to live (and also have relatively low suicide rates – Sweden had 14.7 suicides per 100,000 population in 2019). These countries also have the highest proportion of heavy metal bands per capita population. Some analysts have been led to suggest that there is a correlation between a country’s prevalence of Metal music and the happiness of its citizens. The cultural and social implications of Metal have therefore become of interest to sociologists and psychologists worldwide. On a wider scale, there are more metal bands per capita in Europe and North America than in other regions. Nowadays, Metal is a global phenomenon and unequivocally part of the mainstream music industry (even if bands and metalheads reject that suggestion on principle).
“Strange as it may seem, heavy metal springs not from the poisoned slag of alienation and despair but the loamy soil of post‑industrial prosperity” – Florida & Mellander 2014
Some may think that Metal music is violent, aggressive, nihilistic and confrontational. While some is undoubtedly challenging, intentionally so, many metalheads think otherwise (perhaps predictably). Psychologists, however, suggest that people who listen to Heavy Metal are actually pretty well balanced in the mental health stakes. Dr Nicole Andreoli PhD, a New York‑based clinical psychologist and therapist states that, “Heavy metal has been found to lessen negative emotions by reducing cortisol levels, which helps to lessen stress. Research has found that people who listen to heavy metal tend to think more logically and in more complex terms than those who don’t listen to heavy metal. Heavy metal has been found to help the most with focus.” And, “Now, lyrics in heavy metal do tend to focus on rage. But there is no research linking listening to heavy metal with a desensitisation to violence… Listening to heavy metal has been found to be a positive way to process anger safely.” So, there you have it, science says that the music behind head banging and mosh pits may be good for you.
“Why would heavy metal ever go away?” – Scott Ian (Anthrax, 1963‑)
Not only is Metal in its widest sense insanely popular, it is also commercially very successful. Studies have gone so far as to demonstrate that the number of heavy metal bands per capita is also an indicator of a country’s economic success. Metal certainly contributes to the global economy. Music distribution group TuneCore stated that Metal was the fastest growing music genre globally in 2019. According to Pollstar Boxoffice, Thrash Metal pioneers Metallica sold almost 22.1 million concert tickets and grossed around $1.4bn between 1982 and 2019. Not only that, Metallica’s 5th studio album, ‘Metallica’ (a.k.a. ‘The Black Album’, 1991) currently ranks as the highest selling Metal album of all time with over 31 million copies sold (not including streaming). It entered the Billboard 200 at number one, selling 598,000 copies in the first week and was certified platinum in two weeks. Not bad going.
“If heavy metal bands ruled the world, we’d be a lot better off” – Bruce Dickinson (Iron Maiden, 1958‑)
Digging deeper into Metal
Probably more than any other genre, Metal is an intricately complex web of influences, legacies, interactions, interdependencies, fusions and sub‑genre proliferation. However, in 2024, the multiplicity of Metal styles, sub‑genres and micro‑genres can be massively perplexing. So… I thought… perhaps foolishly, that I would try to make some sense of the Metal scene from its origins to the present day. This ‘rationalisation’ of the genre is intended to be informative, entertaining and accessible, such that newbies are able to learn about the subject while not totally alienating those already deeply inculcated in the genre. As usual, this is not an academic paper, it is intended purely as an enjoyable excursion. Experts on the subject are far more knowledgeable than I can ever be. Trying to achieve a fine balance is probably impossible but I’ve never been one to shy away from such a challenge. After all, impossible is only the possible that hasn’t been done yet. I recognise that by trying to simplify and reveal Metal’s charisma is potentially laying my proverbial sacrificial head on the chopping block (very metal, don’t you think?) and open to ridicule, criticism and rebuttal. So be it. Also, I admit that I did have another agenda in attempting to decipher Metal and that was to learn something more about it myself.
“The guitar influence that affected my songwriting came from the New Wave of British Heavy Metal” – Dave Mustaine (Megadeth, 1961‑)
The first step was to position the various Metal components into hypothetical chronological Metal Eras. These are largely of my own invention and are arbitrary, although fairly logical in my view. The next step was to position the various high‑level Metal genres into each of the Metal Eras under widely accepted genre/sub‑genre (and micro‑genre) titles. Finally, there was the monumental task of allocating artists into each genre/sub‑genre to complete the picture. None of this is easy, accurate or definitive and there are SO many exceptions to the Metal ‘rule book’ that various compromises have had to be made for the sake of ‘clarity’ and ‘simplicity’. At first this seemed undo‑able, like trying to film an un‑filmable novel. Forgive me, for I have sinned (also very metal) in doing so.
“Without metal, I don’t think I would be alive… Metal gave me a reason to live” – Ozzy Osbourne (Black Sabbath, 1948‑)
There are also many credible writings on the subject of Metal already out there that it would be easy simply to piggy back on those and to plagiarise the ‘facts’ with little additional effort. However, hopefully readers will know that I don’t take the easy route and simply copy what others have already done. In doing the research for this article, there seemed to be a huge number of sources but when I realised that many of them were simply clumsy regurgitations of someone else’s work (inexcusable in my view), I decided that I HAD to bring something new to the table, rather than just restate existing information. In doing so, I trust that readers will cut me some slack in attempting to provide a different slant on the subject matter that is both enlightening and engaging as well semi‑original (recognising that nothing in this world is entirely new).
“All that stuff about heavy metal and hard rock, I don’t subscribe to any of that. It’s all just music. I mean, the heavy metal from the Seventies sounds nothing like the stuff from the Eighties, and that sounds nothing like the stuff from the Nineties. Who’s to say what is and isn’t a certain type of music?” – Ozzy Osbourne (Black Sabbath, 1948‑)
Some care has to be taken with genre classification, which can be misleading. There are some inevitable generalisations. For instance, Extreme Metal is a loosely defined umbrella term for a cluster of harder, more abrasive, less commercial sub‑genres including Black Metal, Death Metal, Doom Metal, Speed Metal and Thrash Metal, rather than a discrete genre in itself. Therefore, at least for this article, the terms Metal and Extreme Metal are generally descriptive, rather than genres per se.
Another problem with Metal multiplicity is that any analysis can fall into the trap of meaningless long lists in a vain attempt to be comprehensive. Another impossibility therefore presents itself. Ultimately, this means that a great deal has had to be left out of this article. Even so, there is an annoying element of repetitiveness that cannot be avoided (sorry, it annoys me as much as I expect it will annoy you). Apologies to artists and readers for any unintentional but inevitable major omissions. I did my best. Honest.
“Heavy metal is immortal, but we’re not” – Rob Halford (Judas Priest, 1951)
Author’s note: Throughout this article, I have capitalised genres for consistency and to make it clear when I’m referring to a genre, sub‑genre or micro‑genre as opposed to more general musical terms.
Metal Eras
The result of my thought processes is a ‘Metal Framework’ (or Heavy Metal Periodic Table, as I like to think of it), resulting in five broad ‘Metal Eras’ along with the genres/sub‑genres that kinda fit into them as a sort of hierarchy. This, I think, provides a common sense structure for the rest of this article.
Pre History of Metal: 1960‑1969 a. Pre‑Metal Rock b. Psychedelic Rock c. Hard Rock d. Shock Rock
The Golden Era of Metal: 1970‑1979 a. Heavy Metal b. Progressive Rock c. Glam Metal d. Punk Rock e. Hardcore Punk f. Power Metal g. Pop Metal h. Gothic Rock
The Diversification of Metal: 1980‑1989 a. New Wave of British Heavy Metal (NWOBHM) b. Speed Metal c. Neo‑Classical Metal d. Stoner Metal e. Noise Rock f. Progressive Metal g. Alternative Rock h. Alternative Metal i. Thrash Metal j. Black Metal k. Death Metal l. Emo m. Funk Metal n. Grindcore o. Grunge p. Industrial Metal q. Sludge Metal r. Doom Metal
The Nu Nineties: 1990‑1999 a. Metalcore b. Gothic Metal c. Post Grunge d. Rap Metal e. Nu Metal f. Groove Metal g. Dark Ambient h. Folk Metal i. Symphonic Metal
Millennium Metal: 2000‑ a. New Wave of American Heavy Metal (NWOAHM) b. Blackgaze c. Djent
There, that amounts to 42 (NB. ‘The answer to life, the universe and everything’, from the novel, ‘The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy’ [1979] by author Douglas Adams) ‘top level’ Metal sub‑genres, more than enough to be getting on with. Then there are is the constantly changing elaborate rabbit warren of manifold micro‑genres (hundreds if not thousands of them).
Part of the difficulty with any formal categorised structure is that it is inherently a flawed and imperfect model. Genres don’t just have a clearly defined beginning and end or precise boundaries. One of the problems is genre fluidity. Once a (sub‑)genre has been established, sometimes it will fade away quickly, sometimes it will grow and endure, sometimes it will come and go repeatedly over time, and sometimes it will morph into something else altogether.
Another problem is slotting artists into either a period of time or a particular (sub‑)genre. Many artists are difficult to pin down to a discrete genre, as they may change style, crossover or fuse genres over time such that they may appear in multiple genres dependent on their stage of evolution. Genres are also not all the same; some (sub‑)genres are narrow (e.g. Kawaii Metal, a.k.a. Cute Metal or J‑Pop Metal), while others are very broad, (e.g. Alternative Rock/Alternative Metal); some are clearly delineated while others are more amorphous. I will do my level best to make some sense of it all as we go through it.
Right. Ready to dive in? Let’s rock…
Metal Era #1 – Pre‑History of Metal: 1960‑1970
Pre‑Metal Rock (‑1966)
In CRAVE Guitars’ 14‑part series of articles, ‘The Story of Modern Music in 1,500+ Facts’ (March 2019 to May 2020), I postulated in a very general sense that, after classical music, the vast majority of modern music originated from just the three founding pillars of Blues, Jazz and Country. A blending of these styles over several decades led to the emergence of Rock & Roll in the mid‑1950s and pretty much everything thereafter sprouted from that specific paradigm shift in popular music. From the 1950s onwards, modern popular music evolved and diversified at a tremendous rate. Moving forward a decade or so from rock & roll, the origins of Metal’s direct ancestors rose from vibrant sub‑genres such as Blues Rock, Garage Rock, Surf Rock, Psychedelic Rock, Acid Rock, Jam Band and Pop.
Many commentators point to the Dave Davies’ distorted guitar riff on The Kinks, ‘You Really Got Me’ (1964) as the catalyst for guitar‑driven distorted rock music. Britain’s former colony, the United States of America (sorry dudes) might point to the king of Surf Rock, Dick Dale’s, ‘Misirlou’ (1963) as another fertile seed germinating in the growth of rock. Other notable claims might include Link Wray, ‘Rumble’ (1958), The Animals, ‘The House of the Rising Sun’ (1964), The Troggs, ‘Wild Thing’ (1966) and Steppenwolf, ‘Born to be Wild’ (1969).
Related Genres: Rock & Roll, Blues Rock, Garage Rock, Surf Rock, Psychedelic Rock, Acid Rock, Jam Band, Pop, Pop‑Rock
Examples: Elvis Presley, Little Richard, Link Wray, The Animals, The Troggs, The Beatles, The Kinks, The Who, Cream, Groundhogs, MC5, The Stooges, Man, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Dick Dale, Rolling Stones, and many, many more.
Psychedelic Rock (1966‑1978)
Psychedelic Rock – or just Psych – is a style of Rock music that emerged in the mid‑1960s that often attempts to emulate or enhance the way music sounds to people while under the influence of psychedelic drugs such as LSD (a.k.a. acid) and ‘shrooms’ (a.k.a. psilocybin ‘magic’ mushrooms). Songs typically include heavily distorted, phased and reverb‑drenched electric guitars, extended guitar solos, effected vocals, and drug‑influenced lyrics. Other common characteristics include the use of keyboards and elaborate studio effects like backwards recording, echo, flanging and phasing. It is also not uncommon for Psychedelic Rock groups to incorporate prominent elements of other genres including Folk, Blues, Jazz, and South Asian/Far Eastern music.
The beginning of Psychedelic Rock is generally considered to be c.1966, with the release of The Byrds’ ‘Fifth Dimension’, notably their hit single, ‘Eight Miles High’, and ‘The Psychedelic Sounds of the 13th Floor Elevators’ (1966) by, erm, 13th Floor Elevators. NB. The 13th Floor Elevators were the first band to use the word, ‘psychedelic’ in relation to music.
Psychedelic Rock emerged alongside Psychedelic Pop and Pop Rock, especially in the UK. Many albums from the mid‑1960s incorporated elements of psychedelia, notably The Beatles’ 7th studio album, ‘Revolver’ (1966).
From 1967, the popularity of Psychedelic Rock expanded significantly and it became clearly differentiated from Psychedelic Pop by moving away from Pop‑oriented song structures. Psychedelic Rock incorporated elements of Garage Rock and Blues Rock, as well as the drug‑infused Acid Rock sub‑genre. The genre hit a peak in 1969 with the Woodstock Festival. However, it experienced a substantial decline in popularity by the start of the 1970s with the demise of the hippie counter‑culture. Psychedelic Rock played a big part in influencing many other genres, including Progressive Rock.
Related Genres: Acid Rock, Psychedelic Pop, Space Rock, Progressive Rock, Hard Rock, Jam Band, Pop, Pop Rock, Krautrock, Garage Rock, Blues, Blues Rock, Jazz, Folk, South Asian Music, Progressive Rock, Fractal Rock
Examples: The Doors, Jefferson Airplane, Captain Beefheart, The Byrds, The 13th Floor Elevators, Jimi Hendrix, Cream, Pink Fairies, Can, Love, Pink Floyd, Hawkwind, Eternal Tapestry, Loop
Hard Rock (1966‑)
Hard Rock is a sub‑genre of Rock music rooted in 1960s Blues Rock, Garage Rock and Psychedelic Rock (especially Acid Rock). Hard Rock features distorted guitars and power chords, and frequently includes Blues Rock‑inspired song structures and chord progressions. Flashy guitar solos were common and vocals are typically sung in a forward, forceful manner.
Hard Rock was pioneered in the late 1960s by British artists, who were connected to the British Blues scene. The fanatical popularity of The Beatles and the so‑called ‘British Invasion’ of the US opened up opportunities for experimentation and cross‑fertilisation. Early Blues‑influenced British Hard Rock bands cranked their amplifiers, using distorted guitar to provide the signature sounds of Hard Rock from the likes of Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple and Cream. Many might suggest that these bands belong to Heavy Metal, although history will probably (properly) regard them as Hard Rock that influenced the development of Heavy Metal.
Hard Rock saw considerable commercial success during the 1970s, when American artists infused their songs with a more melodic style and radio‑friendly sound. The late 1970s saw the appearance of AOR (Adult‑Oriented Rock), a softer derivative of Hard Rock that proved both popular and commercial. AOR was characterised by slick studio production, prolific use of ballads, and a keen awareness of Pop as a vehicle for success.
Hard Rock focused on familiar Blues Rock composition. While Hard Rock’s original creative peak was in the 1970s, it continued to be popular, experiencing commercial success in the 1980s. Hard Rock has been reinvented and rejuvenated many times over the intervening decades, proving to be enduringly popular with consumers. The early 1990s saw many fans desert traditional Hard Rock music in favour of the edgier sounds of Alternative Rock, Alternative Metal, Grunge and their associated sub‑genres, only for it to experience another Renaissance in the 21st Century. Hard Rock remains in vogue today and doesn’t look like it’s going away anytime soon.
Related Genres: British Blues, Classic Rock, Heavy Rock, AOR, Heavy Metal, Grunge, Alternative Rock, Post‑Grunge, Glam Metal, Southern Metal
Examples: The Who, The Jimi Hendrix Experience, Steppenwolf, Pink Fairies, Blue Cheer, Grand Funk Railroad, Budgie, Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple, Cream, UFO, Blue Oyster Cult, Mountain, Iron Butterfly, Free, Bad Company, Wishbone Ash, Thin Lizzy, KISS, AC/DC, Joe Satriani, Van Halen, Ted Nugent, The Darkness, Queens of the Stone Age, Audioslave, Shinedown, Alter Bridge, Aerosmith, Nazareth, Boston, Foreigner, Styx, Airbourne, Black Stone Cherry, Michael Schenker Group, Thunder, Wolfmother, Eagles of Death Metal
Shock Rock (1968‑1983)
Unlike any other genre, Shock Rock is defined by its extravagant visuals, gaudy showmanship and controversial public image, rather than by its musicianship and sound. The key thing is that it was intended to… well… shock and to stimulate a reaction. Shock Rock has its roots firmly in the edgier side of the 1960s expressive freedom, youthful rebellion, sexual liberation and a rejection of the west coast ‘love & peace’ hippie counter‑culture movement. Shock Rock was fuelled by pushing the boundaries of the genre through the use of disturbing, horrifying and sexual themes. Shock Rock was largely rejected by the conservative majority of Americans, which unwittingly fed its popularity, especially with alienated youths who didn’t buy into the previous generation’s conventional societal norms and values. Shock Rock influenced Glam Rock in the 1970s, Black Metal in the 1980s and to Industrial Rock and Industrial Metal in the 1990s. The ability of music to shock has significantly diminished in contemporary times. Desensitisation strikes again.
Shock rock is a combination of Hard Rock and/or Heavy Metal, often featuring highly stylised theatrical live performances emphasising over‑the‑top symbolism for effect. Shock Rock live performances included staged violence and provocative behaviour, the use of attention‑grabbing techniques such as costumes, masks, face paint and live animals, or special effects such as pyrotechnics and fake blood. Shock Rock also included lyrical references to literature, cinematic horror and pornography.
Related Genres: Glam Rock, Hard Rock, Heavy Metal, Punk Rock, Black Metal, Industrial Rock, Industrial Metal
Examples: Screamin’ Jay Hawkins, Arthur Brown, Alice Cooper, New York Dolls, Kiss, Ozzy Osbourne, Venom, W.A.S.P., Gwar
Metal Era #2 – The Golden Era of Metal: 1970‑1980
Heavy Metal (1970‑1979)
Here we are at last. THE milestone moment in Metal. Also now known as ‘Classic’ Heavy Metal or Traditional Heavy Metal, Heavy Metal was a pivotal point in modern music that emerged first in the UK and then America. Today, the term Heavy Metal has become a generic retrospective term referring to a specific musical genre style from a specific time period.
Heavy metal is a direct descendant of Hard Rock, Psychedelic Rock and Acid Rock of the late 1960s and early 1970s. Black Sabbath is widely considered to be the first and foremost band to establish Heavy Metal as a ‘thing’. However, Black Sabbath’s sound didn’t appear fully formed; the band was influenced by British Blues Rock and Garage Rock in its early days. Black Sabbath were responsible for the foundations of what would become an entire music genre. At first, many Heavy Metal bands didn’t identify themselves with the title, preferring to play it safe unless Heavy Metal failed. The prominent use of lead guitar and vocals over a solid bass and drum foundation was used to create an imposing, epic sound. The darker and more sinister aesthetic of Heavy Metal was influenced by Shock Rock artists including the use of satanic and occult imagery.
Heavy Metal is constructed around key components of Hard Rock such as power chords (NB. a dyad comprising the root note and the fifth note of a major or minor scale) and riffs (NB. a repeated chord progression). Heavy Metal tends to be played with greater intensity than Hard Rock and commonly uses heavy distortion (NB. intentional clipping and production of higher order harmonics created by overdriving the valves in an amplifier’s pre and/or power amp stages). Heavy Metal also tends to reject the Blues elements of its predecessors, giving it a distinct harder edged sound. Heavy Metal lyrics are generally darker than those of Hard Rock, featuring themes of war, death, loss, the supernatural, the occult and Gothic fantasy.
Another key feature of Heavy Metal is the widespread use of what is known as the dangerous ‘devil’s interval’, also called a tritone because it is a music interval of three whole tones. The Latin term ‘diabolus in musica’ (literally, the Devil in music) originated in the Middle Ages where the sinister dissonant use of the tritone was considered an offence against God and therefore must have come from hell. Just listen to the eponymous track, ‘Black Sabbath’ (1970) or Metallica’s ‘Enter Sandman’ (1991) amongst many others and you’ll recognise it instantly. Unsettling, dark, powerful and scary? Absolutely.
During the 1980s and 1990s, Heavy Metal would take a back seat to rise of other forms of Metal. However, it remained influential, particularly with its influence on Doom Metal and Melodic Death Metal. Heavy Metal would also see a resurgence in popularity during the mid‑2000s with the New Wave of Traditional Heavy Metal (NWOTHM) harking back to its original sound.
Related Genres: Hard Rock, Psychedelic Rock, Blues Rock, Garage Rock, Acid Rock, Heavy Psych, NWOBHM, Doom Metal, Speed Metal, Power Metal, Thrash Metal, Glam Metal, Melodic Death Metal, Alternative Metal, Groove Metal, NWOTHM, Christian Metal, Latin Metal, Southern Metal
Examples: Black Sabbath, Heaven & Hell, Budgie, Coven, Nazareth, Thin Lizzy, early Queen, Judas Priest, AC/DC, Rainbow, Whitesnake, Iron Maiden, Vanilla Fudge, Steppenwolf, Iron Butterfly, Blue Cheer, MC5, The Stooges, Alice Cooper, KISS, ZZ Top, Blue Öyster Cult, Aerosmith, Ted Nugent, Van Halen, Black Label Society, King Diamond, Rob Zombie, Venom, Mercyful Fate
Progressive Rock (1970‑1976)
Traditional Progressive Rock – or simply just ‘Prog’ to its many admirers – is a genre associated with complex harmonies and technical virtuosity inspired by Classical Music and contemporary Jazz. Generally, song structures consist of multiple sections and typically feature shifts in intensity, mood, tempo, key and time signature. Prog also embraced broader instrumentation compared to other Rock genres, including keyboards, wind instruments, percussion and strings. Progressive Rock also tended to lessen the prominence of the guitar as the principal lead instrument. Progressive Rock bands are often known for releasing concept albums (often double albums), relating a story through cohesive connected song themes, and with longer track times than other genres. Songs often reflected subjects like history, science fiction, and fantasy, with lyrics drawing inspiration from poetry, literature, and cinema.
The roots of Progressive Rock date back to the innovations introduced by Psychedelic Rock and Baroque Pop sounds of the mid‑1960s, with groups using new recording techniques, lush orchestral arrangements, integrating broader more esoteric musical influences, and focusing on complex compositions. The earliest Progressive Rock bands emerged in the UK during the late 1960s, seeking to innovate and to push existing musical boundaries. Progressive Rock saw a massive rise in popularity during the early 1970s gaining considerable commercial success and critical acclaim.
Progressive Rock went on to achieve global interest and became particularly influential on other technical music genres. Many modern Metal bands continue to reference original Progressive Rock tropes. Some Jazz‑Rock fusion‑style musical developments such as the so‑called Canterbury Scene in the UK and the Paisley Underground in the US exhibited similarities to Progressive Rock from the 1970s onwards. Even in the late 1990s, Alternative Rock and Post‑Hardcore bands also adopted progressive characteristics, ultimately leading to Progressive Metal.
On reflection, many commentators use pejorative hyperbole like pretentious, pompous, self‑important, haughty, arrogant and conceited to describe the ‘highbrow attitude’ of Progressive Rock artists. Progressive Rock saw a rapid decline in the mid‑late 1970s when Punk Rock revolutionised popular music. Punk, in particular, was the antithesis of Progressive Rock, rejecting the corporate nature of the mainstream and, explicitly, the bloated, grandiose ostentatiousness of Prog.
Related Genres: Classical Music, Jazz, Jazz‑Rock, Hard Rock, Psychedelic Rock, Canterbury Scene, Paisley Underground, Baroque Pop, Progressive Pop, Progressive Metal, Alternative Rock, Post‑Hardcore, Krautrock, Math Rock
Examples: The Nice, Soft Machine, Caravan, Procol Harum, The Beach Boys, The Beatles, The Moody Blues, Frank Zappa, Jethro Tull, King Crimson, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Van Der Graaf Generator, Yes, Genesis, Pink Floyd, Uriah Heep, Mahavishnu Orchestra, Journey, Styx, Kansas, Rush, Gong, Goblin, Dream Theater, Porcupine Tree, Opeth, The Mars Volta, The Aristocrats
Glam Metal (1973‑1990)
Glam Metal is a form of Hard Rock that arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s, originating mainly from the fashionable club scene of the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles. Glam Metal was characterised by arena anthems and flamboyant stage antics, along with the androgynous aesthetics of 1970s Glam Rock, Glam Pop and Hard Rock bands. The music placed an emphasis on catchy hooks and memorable guitar riffs, sing‑along choruses, and lyrics often glamorising the excesses of the ‘sex, drugs and rock & roll’ lifestyle. Power ballads also became very common to the genre. Glam Metal shares a lot of similarities with its direct predecessor Shock Rock.
Glam Metal hit the mainstream when the studio album, ‘Metal Health’ (1983) by Quiet Riot rose to number one on the Billboard 200 chart. Glam Metal coincided with the massive popularity of MTV (Music TeleVision) and rock radio at the time. The glossy visuals and showmanship of high‑budget music videos gave bands heavy rotation on MTV and the sound gradually became more polished and less Heavy Metal. The genre’s global popularity grew even further with established Rock artists adopting elements of the style. Exploiting the reputation of Shock Rock and Glam Metal, a basic raw, grubby sub‑genre known as Sleaze Rock also developed.
Rightly or wrongly, Glam Metal may well be remembered for artists’ rampant and unapologetic excesses more than the music. Many journalists criticised Glam Metal for reducing Metal to a caricature because of its combination of tired pop cliché, overtly immature misogyny and blatant sexual overtones.
By the early 1990s, the bubble had burst and the popularity of Glam Metal rapidly declined as the more ‘authentic’ genres of Grunge and Alternative Rock came to the fore. ‘Hair metal’ and ‘Cock Rock’ became common, often derogatory, terms to describe 1980s showmanship of Glam Metal bands. Nevertheless these genres have proved hard to kill off and fond reminiscence has led to continued popularity and rejuvenation of the music over time.
Related Genres: Hard Rock, Glam Rock, Shock Rock, Glam Pop, Sleaze Rock, Grunge, Alternative Rock
Punk Rock is a very important, although short‑lived genre originating from America and the UK in the mid‑1970s. Punk was a fierce rejection of progressive, commercial and sentimental mainstream rock music. In addition, the anger of Punk was fuelled by severe economic disadvantage and social change of the time. While Punk had its roots in America during the 1960s with Proto‑Punk and Garage Rock, it didn’t fully take off as Punk Rock until the mid‑1970s. Punk Rock’s initial success attracted a huge global underground and cult following before it erupted on the mainstream.
Punk rock is characterised by fast tempos, loud and distorted power chord guitar riffs, simple focused song structure, angry lyrics, and shouted vocals. Punk Rock is typically very antagonistic and confrontational, often dealing with topics considered forbidden in mainstream music. Anti‑establishment rants, anarchic behaviour and heated political protests feature strongly as an integral part of the Punk Rock scene.
Punk wasn’t just about the music, it generated a subculture that felt alienated, powerless and let down by ‘the system’. Punk attitude was also reflected in distinctive fashion, hairstyle, makeup, journalism, art and controversial attitudes. While Punk Rock didn’t outlive the 1970s and, while isn’t really Metal, it has been massively influential across many musical genres over the years particularly in Hardcore Punk and Post‑Hardcore.
“I always said punk was an attitude. It was never about having a Mohican haircut or wearing a ripped T‑shirt. It was all about destruction, and the creative potential within that” – Malcolm Mclaren (1946‑2010)
Related Genres: Proto‑Punk, Garage Rock, Hardcore Punk, Post‑Hardcore, Pop Punk, Post‑Punk, Anarcho‑Punk, Goth Rock, Goth Metal, New Wave
Examples: Ramones, The Stooges, Patti Smith, Blondie, New York Dolls, MC5, Monks, Sex Pistols, The Clash, The Damned, The Ruts, The Vibrators, UK Subs, Sham 69, The Stranglers, Generation X, Buzzcocks, The Jam, X‑Ray Spex, The Adverts, Television, The Slits, Rancid, T.S.O.L., NOFX
Hardcore Punk (1976‑1979)
Often just called ‘Hardcore’, Hardcore Punk initially borrowed much from Punk Rock’s original approach and has been associated with the releases of independently‑run record labels. As Punk Rock became moderated by the mainstream, Hardcore Punk took on the mantle and heaped on the frenetic energy, made it faster, heavier and more aggressive, while retaining Punk’s anti‑establishment attitude and lifestyle. Other common characteristics include an extensive use of shouted vocals, paired‑down production and the tendency towards short, gutsy, gritty songs. Hardcore Punk eventually dissipated into other sub‑genres and derivative forms in a similar way that Punk Rock fragmented and evolved into Post‑Punk and New Wave. Although not as influential as Punk Rock, Hardcore Punk contributed to the development of many other sub‑genres.
Related Genres: Punk Rock, Garage Rock, Melodic Hardcore, Grunge, Pop Punk, Sludge Metal, Riot Grrrl, Alternative Metal, Thrash Metal, Beatdown Hardcore
Examples: D.O.A., Dead Kennedys, Discharge, Black Flag, Napalm Death, Circle Jerks, The Exploited, Minor Threat, GBH, Misfits, Bad Brains, Cancer Bats, Agnostic Front, Fugazi, early Teddybears, Gallows, Girls In Synthesis
Power Metal (1976‑)
Power Metal is a sub‑genre of Heavy Metal, originated in the early 1980s in both Europe and America, as a response to NWOBHM. Basically, it adds more ‘power’ (duh!) to conventional Heavy Metal, aided by slick studio production. As it evolved, Power Metal combined elements of traditional Heavy Metal with Speed Metal, Glam Metal and Thrash Metal. Power Metal played down its Blues Rock roots and made distorted guitar riffs more aggressive and complex and the vocals were more forceful. Power Metal is distinguished by ‘more’ – more speed, more commercial appeal, more epic, more ‘powerful’ and a more uplifting sound, compared to its slower heavier counterparts. Over time, Power Metal adopted some of the distinctive dissonance of more extreme forms of Metal to give the music an edge, as well as Pop appeal to sell product in greater quantity. US Power Metal (USPM) uses the American prefix to differentiate it from its European Power Metal counterpart.
Related Genres: Heavy Metal, NWOBHM, Speed Metal, Thrash Metal, Blues Rock, US Power Metal (USPM), European Power Metal, Pirate Metal, Kawaii Metal, Pop
Pop Metal is a very close relation to Glam Metal and Power Metal and tends to be used as an umbrella term for the commercial combination of Heavy Metal and Hard Rock that feature prominent Pop music elements such as catchy hooks and arena‑friendly anthemic choruses, which became hugely popular in the 1980s. The genre is also applied to some mainstream bands and artists that have formed since the 1990s that blend the lighter, radio‑friendly aspects of Pop with the grittiness of Heavy Metal into their sound. Some of the Pop Metal artists are regarded by Metal purists and music critics alike as ‘sell outs’, putting fame, fortune and financial reward before Metal musical integrity.
Related Genres: Glam Metal, Heavy Metal, Hard Rock, Power Metal, Pop, Pop Punk
Examples: Quiet Riot, Van Halen, Whitesnake, Def Leppard, Europe, Lita Ford, Guns N’ Roses, The Darkness, Bon Jovi, Architects, Bring Me the Horizon, Poison, Mötley Crüe, Ratt, Halestorm, Ghost, In Flames, In This Moment, Lacuna Coil, Shinedown, The Pretty Reckless, We Are The Fallen, Weezer
Gothic Rock (1979‑1990)
Emerging from the smouldering ashes of Punk Rock, the British Post‑Punk movement took on the role of genre innovation, taking it in many different directions. While Gothic Rock was an offshoot of the broader Post‑Punk scene, it quickly became defined as a separate genre in the early 1980s. Gothic Rock is differentiated from other genres by dark and atmospheric songs, a heavily stylised Goth aesthetic and inspirations from Gothic art, literature and cinema. Gothic‑style lyrics reflected sadness, nihilism, dark romantic idealism, loss, tragedy, melancholy, mortality and the supernatural.
Gothic Rock heavily influenced the distinctive and popular Goth subculture and lifestyle that included Goth clubs, stylised fashion and publications. While it may not be considered as true Metal, it is a key stepping stone along the yew‑lined cemetery path to Gothic Metal.
Metal Trivia: Historically, the Goths were a Germanic tribe of barbarians that led the sack of Rome in 410CE. The roots of the modern Gothic aesthetic go to back to the European Middle Ages of the 12th‑16th Centuries with its distinctive ‘barbaric’ Gothic architecture, which was revived again in the 18th‑20th Centuries. The Medieval architectural style became the backdrop to popular atmospheric Gothic romantic, horror and fantasy literature of the 18th‑19th Centuries. The first Gothic novel was ‘The Castle of Otranto’ (1764) by Horace Walpole (1717‑1797).
Related Genres: Post‑Punk, Gothic Metal, Gothic Pop, Emo, Dark Wave, Ethereal Wave, Death Rock
Examples: Siouxsie and the Banshees, The Cure, Bauhaus, Joy Division, The Damned, The Cult, The Mission, Killing Joke, Sisters Of Mercy, Adam and the Ants, Cocteau Twins, Dead Can Dance, The Fall, Evanescence, All About Eve, The Twilight Sad, Alien Sex Fiend, Rome Burns, Southern Death Cult, This Mortal Coil, Pixies, Fields of the Nephilim
Metal Era #3 – The Diversification of Metal: 1980‑1989
New Wave of British Heavy Metal (NWOBHM) (1979‑1983)
NWOBHM is a clumsy acronym for ‘New Wave Of British Heavy Metal’. NWOBHM started off as an injection of fresh new ideas to slow and then reverse the decline of early British Traditional Heavy Metal as well as to adapt to the emergence of high‑energy Punk Rock. NWOBHM bands took some of the elements of Punk and merged it with Heavy Metal. Like Punk Rock, many NWOBHM bands funded and released their own records in the early days. While many Metal fans rejected Punk, it continued to influence Metal in a significant underground Metal scene that began to grow and gain momentum. Eventually, the media, record labels and consumers could no longer dismiss NWOBHM as a passing underground fad and it rapidly became a major force in modern Metal music. The primary band associated with the emergence of NWOBHM was Iron Maiden.
NWOBHM is very diverse and it didn’t tend have a signature ‘sound’ of its own. Instead, the genre is more focused on location and period (the UK in the 1980s). At its peak, it didn’t last long but it has had a lasting impact over the decades. By the early‑mid 1980s, NWOBHM came to define the global mainstream success of Heavy Metal. While predominantly British in origin, NWOBHM had a major global influence on later forms of Metal, including the inevitable American version (NWOAHM).
Related Genres: Heavy Metal, Punk Rock, Hardcore Punk, Doom Metal, Thrash Metal, Speed Metal, New Wave Of American Heavy Metal (NWOAHM)
Examples: Motörhead, Def Leppard, Judas Priest, Quartz, Saxon, Iron Maiden, Tygers of Pan Tang, Diamond Head, Angel Witch, Girlschool, Raven, Holocaust, Tank, Elixir, Praying Mantis, Blitzkrieg, Samson, Grim Reaper, Witchfinder General, Dragonslayer
Speed Metal (1981‑1993)
Speed metal is a bit of a minor but important transitional sub‑genre of Metal originating from NWOBHM and influenced by Hard Rock and Heavy Metal bands, as well as influencing early Thrash Metal.
Speed Metal is usually considered less abrasive and more melodic than Hardcore Punk before it or Thrash Metal after it. However, Speed Metal is usually faster (duh!) and more aggressive than traditional Heavy Metal. It also tends to feature incendiary virtuoso guitar solos and short instrumental passages between conventional verse and chorus song writing structure. While sounding relatively straightforward now, the studio album, ‘Welcome to Hell’ (1981) by British band Venom has been suggested as the first Extreme Metal release.
Related Genres: Hard Rock, Heavy Metal, NWOBHM, Hardcore Punk, Doom Metal, Thrash Metal
Examples: Venom, Slayer, Motörhead, Exciter, DragonForce, Annihilator, Anvil, Heathen, Helloween, Piledriver, Racer X, Whiplash, Bewitched, Midnight, Annihilator, Children of Bodom
Neo‑Classical Metal (1983‑)
Neo‑Classical Metal is a niche, largely Instrumental Rock sub‑genre with its roots firmly in Hard Rock, Heavy Metal and Speed Metal, while taking considerable inspiration from traditional acoustic instrumental Classical Music. The main characteristic of Neo‑Classical Metal is its highly technical virtuoso guitar playing and particularly the fast and complex ‘shredding’ techniques that became widely popular during the 1980s. Deep Purple guitarist Ritchie Blackmore was probably the pioneer of this particular style of guitar playing before that role was passed on to Swedish guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. The genre took its cues mainly from the Romantic and Baroque periods of 17th and 18th Century Classical Music. In turn, Neo‑Classical Metal influenced many genres including Progressive Metal.
Related Genres: Hard Rock, Heavy Metal, Speed Metal, Classical Music, Instrumental Rock, Power Metal, Symphonic Metal, Progressive Metal
Examples: Ritchie Blackmore, Yngwie Malmsteen, Randy Rhoads, Jason Becker, Uli Jon Roth, Marty Friedman, Paul Gilbert
Stoner Metal (1982‑)
Stoner Metal is a sub‑genre of Metal that combines key components of Doom Metal with elements of Psychedelic Rock and Blues Rock to create a melodic yet heavy sound. Like Stoner Metal’s close genre relative Stoner Rock, heavily distorted guitar riffs feature strong grooves and psychedelic effect‑driven atmospheric sounds, while the tempo is generally slower than many other Metal genres. Guitars and basses are frequently down‑tuned with a particular emphasis on a solid, bass‑heavy sound.
Several Stoner Metal bands and fans shared a common use of marijuana, hence the genre name. The focus on weed can be found within the lyrics of many Stoner Metal tracks, combined with the heavy and psychedelic sound of the music. Due to the similarities in styles, some Stoner Metal bands also adopted and incorporated certain aspects of Sludge Metal and Heavy Psych.
Related Genres: Stoner Rock, Sludge Metal, Heavy Psych, Instrumental Rock, Doom Metal
Examples: Sleep, Kyuss, Monster Magnet, Cathedral, Down, Electric Wizard, Black Mountain, Corrosion of Conformity, Clutch, Karma to Burn, Saint Vitus, Orange Goblin, Pulled Apart by Horses, Royal Blood, Om, Madmess, My Sleeping Karma, Pigs Pigs Pigs Pigs Pigs Pigs Pigs, Melvins, High on Fire, Eternal Tapestry
Noise Rock (1983‑2010)
Noise Rock is a broad genre that arose from Punk Rock and Post‑Punk. Noise Rock artists incorporate a high degree of experimental sound manipulation, heavy distortion, guitar feedback, prominent use of effects, dissonant musical intervals and lo‑fi production. The most commonly used instruments are guitars, bass and drums, as well as extensive use of drum machines, guitar effects, studio electronics, tape‑manipulated soundscapes, and random industrial noises added to supplement the already‑abrasive core sound. Song structures defied convention and often rely on dirge, drone or discordant tonal textures. German Krautrock (a.k.a. Kosmiche Musik or Cosmic Music) also heavily influenced Noise Rock.
The first Noise Rock artists predated the genre, emerging in New York in the 1960s and the first Noise Rock studio album was arguably, ‘White Light/White Heat’ (1968) by The Velvet Underground. The tracks made extensive use of guitar feedback, distortion effects, simple recording, and unstructured Jam Band sessions. Noise Rock reached its peak in the 1990s with bands like Sonic Youth leading the evolution of the genre before they disbanded in 2011. Despite it seeming to be a musical dead end, Noise Rock influenced many future Metal sub‑genres, such as Industrial Metal.
Related Genres: Punk Rock, Post‑Punk, Jam Band, Sludge Rock, Drone Metal, Industrial Rock, Industrial Metal, Krautrock, Experimental Rock
Examples: The Velvet Underground, Lou Reed, The Stooges, Sonic Youth, Big Black, Nirvana, Dinosaur Jr., Membranes, Thurston Moore, Lee Ranaldo, Black Midi, Deerhoof, Tropical Fuck Storm, Boris, SUNN O))), Melt‑Banana, Merzbow
Progressive Metal (1984‑)
Heavy Metal was influenced by Progressive Rock and, in turn contributed towards Progressive Metal. Today’s Progressive Metal continues to use the layered, textured sounds and intricate arrangements of Prog and combines it with heavier, more distorted sounds of Metal. The 1990s saw a rejuvenation of Progressive Rock and the emergence of Progressive Metal through a new generation of artists using innovative sounds and recording techniques.
Progressive metal is a genre that features Metal’s electric guitar‑driven sound and fuses it with technical proficiency and Progressive Rock‑inspired virtuosity. It uses unorthodox song writing featuring complex harmonies, long track times, multiple passages, shifts in mood, texture, tempo, key changes and uncommon time signatures. Like Progressive Rock, Progressive Metal frequently uses additional instrumentation such as keyboards, percussion, wind instruments and strings. Lyrics are often poetic, elegiac, melancholic, and introspective, and it tackles themes such as philosophy, science fiction, fantasy and politics. Progressive Metal is known for its high‑gain guitars and heavy guitar riffs. It is fair to say that Progressive Metal has heavily influenced many other forms of late 20th Century and early 21st Century Metal.
Related Genres: Progressive Rock, Heavy Metal, US Power Metal, Thrash Metal, Technical Death Metal, Black Metal, Metalcore, Djent, Avant‑Garde Metal, Experimental Metal, Post‑Metal
Examples: Rush, Savatage, Queensrÿche, Fates Warning, Voivod, Dream Theater, Meshuggah, Porcupine Tree, Tool, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Opeth, Gojira, Mastodon, Coheed and Cambria, Steve Vai, King’s X, Devin Townsend, Between the Buried and Me,
Alternative Rock (1985‑2010)
Alternative Rock (a.k.a. Alt‑Rock) is a massively diverse range of styles and has become regarded as a bit of an all‑encompassing umbrella term for a wide range of music that doesn’t easily fit elsewhere, almost to the point of not being a cohesive genre. Alternative Rock developed in the independent record label music scenes of the 1980s, being heavily influenced by Punk Rock, Post‑Punk and Hardcore. Common characteristics typically include a blend of melodic, traditional song writing with more eccentric sounds drawing from Punk, using idiosyncratic lyrics, as well as plentiful amounts of distortion.
In America, Alternative Rock bands combined Punk Rock and Post‑Hardcore with Folk Rock and Power Pop. Later groups took on a more raucous, jarring approach, influenced by Noise Rock and Experimental Rock.
Alternative Rock wasn’t met with a great deal of commercial success compared to some other forms of Metal and Rock because of its diversity. The term ‘College Rock’ was coined to describe many of the early Alternative Rock bands because they were popular on American college radio channels and, perhaps predictably, MTV.
By the start of the 1990s, several previously independent artists signed to major labels and the success of Grunge bands launched Alternative Rock along with Alternative Metal into mainstream popularity. Multiple other commercial offshoots and derivatives of Alternative Rock began to appear as either revivals of past genres or breakthroughs in new areas. A number of artists during this period exploited the creativity and experimentation of Alternative Rock to push the genre’s already nebulous boundaries. While Alternative Rock isn’t very Metal, Alternative Metal would not have evolved in the way it did without its direct forebear.
In the 2010s, Alternative Rock largely faded from the mainstream and returned to the underground. Indie Rock tended to take over from Alternative Rock and continued to enjoy moderate success until Indie also experienced a major decline by the 2020s.
Related Genres: Hard Alternative Rock, Indie Pop, Indie Rock, Garage Rock Punk Rock, Proto‑Punk, Post‑Punk, Pop Punk, Psychedelic Rock, Post‑Rock, Alternative Dance, Neo‑Psychedelia, Shoegaze, Dream Pop, Slacker Rock, Post‑Hardcore, Folk Rock, Power Pop, Experimental Rock, Britpop, Art Rock, Slacker Rock, Emo, Emo Rap, Electronica, Funk Rock, Ska Revival, Hip Hop, Pop Rap
Examples: R.E.M., Dinosaur Jr., My Bloody Valentine, Violent Femmes, Hüsker Dü, The Replacements, Pixies, The Smashing Pumpkins, Faith No More, Jane’s Addiction, Living Colour, Sonic Youth, Red Hot Chili Peppers, The Flaming Lips, Pavement, Yo La Tengo, Wooden Shjips, Guided by Voices, Weezer, Nine Inch Nails, Radiohead, TV on the Radio, Car Seat Headrest, Mitski, Courtney Barnett, Kid Cudi, Six By Seven, Stabbing Westward
Alternative Metal (1985‑)
Alternative Metal is another catch‑all sub‑genre of Metal music and a close relative of Alternative Rock that also emerged in the late‑1980s. Alternative Metal pushed the borders of Alt‑Rock, with a medium‑tempo similar to Groove Metal. Unlike other, more traditional Metal genres, Alternative Metal adopted a straight‑forward sound. Vocal styles vary hugely, depending on the band. Alternative Metal lyrics also focus on more prosaic, down‑to‑earth themes than many other Metal genres. Like its Rock counterpart, Alternative Metal is noted for its variety and a willingness to experiment with unconventional musical styles beyond the confines of straightforward Metal music.
Alternative Metal actually increased in popularity when Grunge took alternative music into the mainstream in the first half of the 1990s. The genre took another step forward with the emergence of Rap Metal, Nu Metal and Post‑Grunge in the mid‑1990s.
Alternative Metal’s popularity continued undiminished into the 21st Century and continued to evolve into the New Wave of American Heavy Metal (NWOAMH), which harked back to preceding Metal genres and built on them. The influence of Alternative Metal can clearly be heard in other Metal genres, such as Metalcore.
Related Genres: Heavy Metal, Alternative Rock, Groove Metal, Funk Metal, Grunge, Nu Metal, Post‑Grunge, NWOAMH, Metalcore
Examples: Faith No More, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Jane’s Addiction, Prong, Living Colour, The Smashing Pumpkins, Primus, Rage Against the Machine, Disturbed, Avenged Sevenfold, Five Finger Death Punch, Architects, Bring Me the Horizon, Enter Shikari, John 5, Hundred Reasons
Thrash Metal (1983‑1995)
Thrash metal was, arguably, one of the first Extreme Metal genres characterised by fast tempos and an aggressive tonel. A new generation of American Metal bands emerged, headed up by ‘the big four’ Thrash Metal bands, Metallica, Anthrax, Slayer and Megadeth. These four bands combined influences from classic Heavy Metal, NWOBHM and Speed Metal, developing them further to great success. Thrash Metal’s popularity peaked in the early 1990s before beginning to decline.
Thrash Metal frequently features tight rhythms, down‑tuned and palm‑muted heavily distorted guitar riffs. Talented Thrash Metal lead guitarists ably demonstrated highly technical ‘shred’ solos using two‑hand ‘tapping’, sweep picking and fast legato licks, along with unusual scales. Thrash drumming frequently uses rapid double‑bass drum patterns. Vocals range widely from melodic singing to angry shouting. Themes tackled by Thrash Metal include politics, war, socio‑political commentary, Satanism, science fiction, introspection and hedonistic lifestyles.
In America, two main Thrash Metal scenes developed; Bay Area Thrash and East Coast Thrash, eventually evolving into what is known as Crossover Thrash. In Germany, Teutonic Thrash Metal emerged in parallel. Thrash Metal heavily influenced Alternative Metal and Grunge, as well as Groove Metal. In the 2000s and 2010s, Thrash Metal saw a resurgence, with 1980s bands reuniting or returning to their original sound, alongside emerging new bands.
Related Genres: Heavy Metal, Speed Metal, NWOBHM, Bay Area Thrash, East Coast Thrash, Crossover Thrash, Teutonic Thrash Metal, Alternative Metal, Grunge, Groove Metal
Examples: Metallica, Slayer, Anthrax, Megadeth, Pantera, Anvil, Exodus, Overkill, Kreator, Destruction, Sodom, Sepultura, Testament, Death Angel, Municipal Waste, Marty Friedman, Legion of the Damned
Black Metal (1984‑)
Black metal is a style of Extreme Metal typified by penetrating, distorted, trebly electric guitar riffs, screamed vocals, and double‑bass drum‑driven rhythms with a distinctively intense style called ‘blast beat’ (NB. a term coined by British Grindcore band, Napalm Death). Tempos can reach a potent 300bpm, roughly double the ‘norm’. Studio production features a raw, lo‑fi approach to mixing. Conventional song structures generally include strong ideological themes such as opposition to organised religion, devil worship, the occult, paganism, Satanism and neo‑Nazism. Lyrics were delivered by gruff, guttural vocals. Black Metal’s origins date back to 1980s Speed Metal with Venom’s 2nd studio album, ‘Black Metal’ (1982), which gave the genre its name. Black Metal aesthetics strongly reflect its overtly ominous lyrics and darkly deviant ideology, lashings of corpse paint included as standard.
Black Metal is widely regarded as comprising two distinct ‘waves’. The first wave established the genre’s prototypical roots, derived from a wide range of early Extreme Metal styles, particularly Thrash Metal and Germany’s Teutonic Thrash Metal scene. Support for the first wave declined by the end of the 1980s due to the rising popularity of other genres such as Death Metal.
The second wave of Black Metal arose during the 1990s, epitomised by Norwegian Black Metal and originating from the major cities of Oslo and Bergen. This wave was characterised by a more progressive, repetitive, riff‑driven style, less structured compositions and powerful instrumental passages. As its popularity increased, Black Metal spread out from Scandinavia and became an international phenomenon. Rather than pushing existing boundaries, Black Metal asserted that there were no boundaries, leading to an ever increasing spiral of destructive, aberrant excess.
By the 1990s, Black Metal had become dangerous and notorious, associated with very real events such as arson attacks on Christian churches, brutality, self‑harm, suicide and murders, rather than the music. Such was the controversy, the Hollywood film, ‘Lords Of Chaos’ was released in 2018. The film was a historical biographical horror/drama portrayal of the Norwegian Black Metal scene of the early 1990s and specifically focussing on the band Mayhem. The film was based on the book, ‘Lords Of Chaos: The Bloody Rise Of The Satanic Metal Underground’ (1998) by Michael J. Moynihan and Didrik Søderlind.
Metal Trivia: The notoriety surrounding the Black Metal band Mayhem was immense. Swedish vocalist ‘Dead’ (Per Ohlin) committed suicide in 1991, aged 22 (his corpse was pictued on an unofficially released Mayhem album cover). Norwegian guitarist ‘Euronymous’ (Øystein Aarseth) was murdered at the age of 25 in 1993 by former bandmate and rival ‘Varg’ (Kristian Vikernes), who was sentenced to 21 years in prison in 1994 for murder and arson (released after 15 years in 2009). Varg continues to make music under the name Burzum.
Metal Trivia: The term Kvlt (an alternative spelling of cult), referring to Nordic or pagan culture, is used by Black Metal fans to prove their knowledge of the obscure and to mock others’ ignorance. Ironically, the term has been turned around by followers of other Metal genres to provoke fans of Black Metal. Now you know.
Related Genres: Satanic Metal, Heavy Metal, Speed Metal, Black Ambient, Norwegian Black Metal, Industrial Black Metal, Black Doom, Post‑Black Metal, Blackgaze, Pagan Metal
Along with Black Metal, Death metal is another style of Extreme Metal whose influences derive from the raw sound and inflammatory style of early 1980’s Speed Metal and Thrash Metal. Death Metal features heavily distorted, commonly down‑tuned guitars playing fast, palm‑muted riffs and double‑bass drum ‘blast beat’ rhythms. Chromatic chord progressions and abrupt changes in volume, tempo and time signature are also common. Vocalists adopt stressed, guttural vocal styles such as growling, squealing and grunting, with lyrics that emphasise aggression, violence, anti‑religion, politics, philosophy, science fiction, environmentalism and (unsurprisingly) mortality and death.
The first Death Metal bands emerged in America during the mid‑1980s, closely followed by the UK. This period is often now referred to as Old School Death Metal (OSDM). The guitarist with the band Death, Chuck Schuldiner, became known as ‘The Godfather of Death Metal’. A specific offshoot of Death Metal based around the Tampa Bay area formed the discrete Florida Death Metal scene.
During the early 1990s, Swedish Death Metal came to the fore, based around the country’s major cities of Gothenburg and Stockholm. The Swedish Death Metal band Entombed released their debut studio album, ‘Left Hand Path’ (1990), which established Death Metal’s signature ‘buzzsaw’ guitar tone by using the BOSS HM‑2 Heavy Metal effect pedal (see CRAVE Guitars’ feature). Rarely has a music genre been defined by a single guitar stomp box. Another offshoot, Melodic Death Metal, employs a highly melodic (duh!) style relying on guitar harmonies and vocals, often overlapping in style with Doom Metal. Another Scandinavian country also jumped on the bandwagon with the Finnish Death Metal sub‑genre, which flourished by using off‑kilter rhythms, guttural vocals and doom‑laden lyrics.
Further offshoot sub‑genres also emerged throughout the 2000s and 2010s, including Technical Death Metal, Brutal Death Metal and Deathcore. By the late 2010s, Death Metal bands went back to their roots and revived elements OSDM, including lo‑fi production, riff‑centric song writing, and resonant vocals.
Related Genres: Speed Metal, Thrash Metal, Old School Death Metal, Swedish Death Metal, Melodic Death Metal, Deathcore, Industrial Death Metal, Finnish Death Metal, Florida Death Metal, Technical Death Metal, Brutal Death Metal, Death ‘n’ Roll, Goregrind, Slam Death Metal, War Metal, Dissonant Death Metal, Death Doom Metal
Examples: Possessed, Tiamat, Death, Autopsy, Morbid Angel, Obituary, Cannibal Corpse, Deicide, Immolation, Vader, Six Feet Under, Kataklysm, Dying Fetus, Nile, Amon Amarth, At the Gates, In Flames, Hypocrisy, Dark Tranquillity, Entombed, Grave, Unleashed, Dismember, Demigod, Amorphis, Arch Enemy, Soilwork, The Haunted, Carcass, Bolt Thrower, Carnifex, All Shall Perish, Necrophagist, Origin, Blood Incantation, Legion of the Damned, Children of Bodom, The Black Dahlia Murder
Emo (1987‑)
On first impression, one might think that Emo is an abbreviation for ‘emotional’. In fact, it stands for ‘Emotive Hardcore’, which originated in Washington, D.C. in the summer of 1985 from the city’s Hardcore Punk scene, incorporating more melodic song writing, acoustic instrumentation, poetic lyrics, and highly expressive, passionate vocals. Since its inception, the genre has evolved substantially with a wide range of styles. The tortured soul of Emo is its heartfelt outpouring of emotion and sentiment. Emo artists attempt to build a strong emotional connection with their followers. Often seen as a subculture as well as a musical genre, Emo’s lifestyle influence extends to fashion, culture, and deeply felt introspective mind‑set. While the uninitiated may perceive Emo and Gothic as interchangeable, they are separate genres and subcultures, each vehemently defending their own territory and identity. Emo did however influence Gothic Rock/Metal and vice versa.
For a while in the early days, Emo was also known as Emocore, as a way of differentiating it from Hardcore Punk. Emo uses slower tempos with melodic lyrics that were more personal, thoughtful, allegorical and elegiac than its counterparts. Over time, the ‘core’ was dropped and there became a distinct split between old school Emo/Screamo and ‘modern’ Emo‑Pop.
Related Genres: Hardcore Punk, Screamo, Emo‑Pop, Emo‑Rap, Gothic Rock, Pop Punk, Alternative Rock
Examples: My Chemical Romance, Good Charlotte, Alkaline Trio, All Time Low, Black Veil Brides, Bring Me the Horizon, Cute Is What we Aim For, Dashboard Confessional, Death Cab for Cutie, Embrace, Fall Out Boy, Funeral for a Friend, From Autumn to Ashes, HelloGoodbye, Jimmy Eat World, Lostprophets, Panic! At the Disco, Paramore, Pierce the Veil, The Promise Ring, Sum 41, Taking Back Sunday, Thursday, The Used
Funk Metal (1987‑2006)
Funk metal is a heavier take on Funk Rock born in the mid‑late‑1980s rising out of the Alternative Rock and Alternative Metal genre. It takes the complex dance rhythms of Funk and fuses it with a Hard Rock/Heavy Metal style. With heavy guitar riffs and strident guitar solos, the genre focuses on prominent funky slap‑style basslines and groovy drum rhythms. While Funk Metal blends Funk and Metal (duh!), it also includes other influences that were very un‑metal, such as Hip Hop, Punk and even Ska Revival. The focus of Funk Metal lyrics is diverse, ranging from decadent hedonistic celebrations to barbed political criticism.
The popularity of Funk Metal grew significantly in popularity by the turn of the 1990s, attracting a great deal of exposure on MTV playlists. A lot of artists from other genres experimented, crossed over or dabbled with Funk Metal, seeing it as the ‘in thing’. However, all good things come to an end and Funk metal saw a decline in popularity as Grunge, Alternative Rock and Pop Rock took firm hold of consumers’ precious lucre. It wasn’t all bad news, Funk Metal would go on to adapt and influence the emergence and development of Nu Metal and Rap Metal.
Related Genres: Funk, Alternative Metal, Rap Metal, Hard Rock, Heavy Metal, Glam Metal, Thrash Metal, Hip Hop, Punk, Ska Revival, Grunge, Nu Metal, Alternative Metal
Examples: Red Hot Chili Peppers, Bad Brains, Living Colour, Jane’s Addiction, Primus, Rage Against the Machine, Faith No More, Incubus, Extreme, Mordred
Grindcore (1987‑)
Grindcore was a sub‑genre of Extreme Metal and Hardcore Punk that emerged in the mid‑1980s. Grindcore features a highly aggressive and chaotic sound, such as intense sixteenth‑note ‘blast beat’ and ‘skank’ drum patterns, down‑tuned guitars alternating between tremolo‑picked power chords and groovier down‑picked techniques. Vocal styles ranged from shouts, barks and growls to grating screams and howled shrieks. Grindcore is known for its brutally short song structures, dubbed ‘microsongs’, where tracks regularly last for less than a minute.
Metal Trivia: English Grindcore band, Napalm Death holds the world record for the shortest song ever recorded with their track ‘You Suffer’ from their debut album, Scum (1987). The song is precisely just 1.316 seconds long.
Grindcore lyrics feature defiant and coarse language delivered with attitude and themes including anti‑establishment, anti‑religion, slasher‑inspired horror films and gratuitous sexual behaviour. While being fairly niche in Metal terms, Grindcore has influenced many related sub‑genres (often incorporating the word ‘grind’).
Related Genres: Hardcore Punk, Coregrind, Noisegrind, Deathgrind, Electrogrind, Goregrind, Pornogrind
Grunge, a.k.a. ‘the Seattle Sound’ arose from Washington State in the American Pacific North West. Grunge emerged primarily in the city of Seattle during the mid‑1980s and was closely associated with Alternative Rock. Grunge is generally characterised by moderate tempos, combining the anarchic energy of Punk Rock with the heavier guitar sounds of Hard Rock, Heavy Metal and Classic Rock. Grunge’s mixture of many different styles and influences makes its status as a discrete genre in its own right subject to some debate. However, a shared dingy, dirty, messy sound and lifestyle aesthetic generally unites bands and fans under the ‘Grunge’ umbrella… at least to begin with. Grunge lyrics are noted for their anxiety‑induced themes, including troubled relationships, mental health struggles, drug addiction and social (in)justice. Lyrics were often delivered with a distinctively brash, angry, ‘raspy’ vocal style.
While Grunge was an underground genre from the outset, with music released on small, independent labels like Sub‑Pop Records, it wouldn’t stay that way for long, as it gradually rose in popularity towards the end of the 1980s. Grunge would burst into the mainstream, with the landmark commercial success of two studio albums, ‘Nevermind’ by Nirvana and ‘Ten’ by Pearl Jam (both 1991). Grunge symbolised a major cultural shift and reflected the melancholic, angst, isolation and alienation felt by many young people at the time. However, pure Grunge didn’t last long and it declined rapidly after the death of Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain on 5th April 1994 at the age of 27 – forever immortalised as a member of the infamous ’27 Club’.
“I was looking for something a lot heavier, yet melodic at the same time. Something different from heavy metal, a different attitude” – Kurt Cobain (Nirvana, 1967‑1994)
Related Genres: Alternative Rock, Hard Rock, Heavy Metal, Classic Rock, Post‑Grunge
Examples: Nirvana, Soundgarden, Pearl Jam, Mudhoney, Tad, Screaming Trees, Melvins, Green River, Skin Yard, Alice in Chains, Mother Love Bone, Stone Temple Pilots, Foo Fighters
Industrial Metal (1988‑)
Industrial Metal is a niche genre that fuses Heavy Metal and Noise Rock with elements from Industrial Rock and Post‑Industrial music. In addition to traditional Metal instrumentation, Industrial Metal adds electronic instruments such as synthesizers, samplers and sometimes drum machines. The distorted down‑tuned repetitive guitar riffs and dissonant noises give the genre a highly mechanical sounding quality. Other common characteristics include distorted vocals and a heavier, discordant abrasive sound.
The prominent influence of Industrial Metal generated popular sub‑genres through the 1990s such as Cyber Metal and Neue Deutsche Härte (New German Hardness) which, in turn, influenced many other Extreme Metal artists.
Related Genres: Industrial Rock, Post‑Industrial, Cyber Metal, Neue Deutsche Härte, Teutonic Thrash Metal, Industrial Black Metal, Industrial Death Metal, Electro‑Industrial, Dungeon Synth, Dark Wave
Examples: Ministry, White Zombie, Godflesh, Nine Inch Nails, Fear Factory, Throbbing Gristle, Strapping Young Lad, Orgy, Static‑X, Rammstein, Blut Aus Nord, The Kovenant, Stabbing Westward, ohGr, Skinny Puppy, Mortiis
Sludge Metal (1989‑)
Sludge Metal is a genre of Metal that emerged in the early‑mid 1990s combining the slow, dark instrumentals and atmosphere of Doom Metal with the aggressive, harsh vocals reminiscent of Hardcore Punk. The word ‘sludge’ gives a sense of the sluggish, grubby atmosphere of the genre. Sludge Metal makes extensive use of guitar feedback, slow groovy distorted guitar riffs, and angry pained vocals. It is also common for Sludge Metal tracks to engage in occasional fast passages and technicality normally attributed to Hardcore. Lyrics borrow both from the angry social and political commentary of Punk and from the sad and melancholic themes of Doom Metal. This merging of styles results in frustrated and embittered messages, often directed either at society or, in a quirk of ironic self‑awareness, at itself.
Many Sludge Metal artists have attempted to experiment with a fusion of Doom Metal and Punk Rock. This includes Progressive Metal, Grindcore, and Crust Punk, among many others. A large number of bands combined the severe qualities of Sludge Metal with the psychedelic aspects and repetitive riffs of Stoner Metal and Heavy Psych.
Many artists have also fused elements of Sludge Metal with textures and stylings of other atmospheric genres like Post‑Rock, giving rise to Post‑Metal and Atmospheric Sludge Metal, so there are extensive genre crossovers muddying (sic!) the waters. Sludge Metal is also considered to be a major influence on other modern Extreme Metal genres.
Related Genres: Punk Rock, Hardcore Punk, Stoner Metal, Stoner Sludge, Atmospheric Sludge Metal, Progressive Metal, Grindcore, Crust Punk, Doom Metal, Powerviolence, Heavy Psych, Stoner Metal
Examples: Melvins, Black Flag, Sleep, Flipper, Neurosis, Acid Bath, Grief, early Mastodon, Dystopia, Godflesh, Cult of Luna, Bongzilla, Boris, Crowbar, Eyehategod, ISIS, Amenra, Rosetta
Doom Metal (1989‑)
The roots of Doom Metal are considered to have been planted in the early 1970s Traditional Heavy Metal and particularly early Black Sabbath. During the 1970s and most of the 1980s Doom wasn’t fully developed, although many observers now refer to this transitional period as ‘Traditional Doom Metal’. By the late 1980s, European artists had adopted the ‘Doom’ sound as a discrete genre. Doom Metal remained the standard until the early 1990s, when newcomers began to experiment in combining Doom Metal with several other Metal sub‑genres. Doom Metal has proven to be one of the most enduring and recognisable Metal genres, maintaining a relatively small but devoted fan base in many countries.
Wallowing in tension, despair and dread, Doom Metal emphasises an overbearing atmosphere more than many of Metal’s other primary sub‑genres. Doom Metal uses ponderous tempos, repeated chords, and dense, down‑tuned distorted guitars and basses intended to immerse the listener in a wash of desperate foreboding on tracks that commonly exceed the ten minute mark. Instruments generally retain the standard guitar, bass, and drums format, although it is not unusual to add keyboards to help create an ominous layer of atmosphere. Doom Metal stage decoration is usually dark, making good use of occult and Gothic aesthetics.
Doom Metal vocals can be in any of the predominant Metal styles, but all share a determined attempt to evoke a sense of emotional hopeless desperation, sadness and mental anguish. This is further augmented by lyrical themes of grief, depression, fear, resentment, and suffering that are all hallmarks of the genre.
Related Genres: Heavy Metal, Traditional Doom, Epic Doom Metal, Funeral Doom, Melodic Doom Metal, Death Doom Metal
Examples: Black Sabbath, Pentagram, Saint Vitus, Trouble, Candlemass, Cathedral, Witchfinder General, Solitude Aeturnus, Sleep, Kyuss, My Dying Bride, Electric Wizard, Paradise Lost, Katatonia, Type O Negative, Chelsea Wolfe, Goblin Cock, Esoteric, Shape of Despair, Bell Witch, Ahab, Evoken, Pallbearer
Metal Era #4 – The Nu Nineties: 1990‑1999
Metalcore (1990‑)
Metalcore is a relatively niche sub‑genre that combines elements of Hardcore Punk and Heavy Metal that began to take shape during the early 1990s. It features distorted, down‑tuned guitars, intense drumming using double bass drum techniques and varying tempos. Vocals are often delivered in a harsh screaming and shouting style. Later bands have incorporated clean sonorous vocals to contrast with the heavier elements of the songs. A distinctive feature of Metalcore is the use of breakdown passages, which emphasise a tight, percussive style rather than a focus on harmony and melody. The breakdown sections often feature half‑time tempos, with cymbal patterns and the snare drum on the third beat of the bar (reminiscent of reggae’s ‘one drop’ technique). Guitarists play slow ‘chugs’ in rhythm with the bass drum beats. Metalcore led to offshoot sub‑genres such as Melodic Metalcore.
Related Genres: Heavy Metal, Hardcore Punk, Melodic Metalcore, Electronicore, Nu Metalcore, Progressive Metalcore
Examples: Corrosion of Conformity, Dirty Rotten Imbeciles, Suicidal Tendencies, Stormtroopers of Death, Cro‑Mags, Biohazard, Machine Head, Earth Crisis, Hatebreed, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Atreyu, Eighteen Visions, Converge, Architects, Bring Me The Horizon, Caliban
Gothic Metal (1990‑)
Gothic Metal is a genre derived directly from Gothic Rock in the UK in the early 1990s, retaining much of its predecessor’s Goth aesthetic and lifestyle subculture, and complementing them with heavier, more intense Metal sensibilities. Typical characteristics of the Gothic Metal sound include synthesisers and substantial use of guitar chorus, reverb and echo effects. Gothic Metal steers clear of some of Gothic Rock’s lighter, more commercial elements and tends to be heavier and slower than Goth Rock, featuring sombre, gloomy atmospherics with layered synth soundscapes and drone/dirge sequences. Vocals cover a wide range of styles, often plaintive, melodic or even spoken. Gothic Metal, like Gothic Rock, has remained popular with a dedicated core following.
Related Genres: Gothic Rock, Post‑Punk, Death Rock, Ethereal Wave, Progressive Gothic Metal, Dark Wave
Examples: Type O Negative, My Dying Bride, Fields of the Nephilim, Therion, The Gathering, Anathema, Katatonia, Theatre of Tragedy, Within Temptation, HIM, Lacuna Coil, Leaves’ Eyes, Danzig, Draconian, Paradise Lost, Witchbreed, Tristania, Moonspell
Post‑Grunge (1994‑2009)
Post‑Grunge is a direct derivative of Grunge (duh!) that takes the latter’s distorted guitar and grimy aesthetic fused with a more streamlined, groove‑based approach, often adopting a more refined sound compared to the harsh underground characteristics that shaped early Grunge. Post‑Grunge features a mellower, more melodic sound and more conventional song structures and arrangements when compared with its predecessor, though Grunge’s slow‑medium tempo remained. Both Grunge and Post‑Grunge (and much of Indie Rock) genres are known for the ‘yarling’ vocal style (NB. ‘yarling’ is a melodramatic deep, guttural vocal style with precise pronunciation). The combination of acoustic and electric guitars is particularly common in Post‑Grunge ballads. Post‑Grunge lyrics frequently dealt with mental health issues and included featured themes of fear, anxiety, melancholy and insecurity.
Emerging in conjunction with the decline of Grunge, Post‑Grunge’s early style rapidly became an indispensable feature of American commercial rock radio. Post Grunge attracted the disparaging name, ‘Butt Rock’ (NB. meaning lyrically devoid of artistic merit and reduced melodic complexity). A second wave of Post‑Grunge bands continued the genre’s popularity, though some well‑known bands began to attract a great deal of negative criticism, as bands veered more towards Hard Rock and further away from Metal. Post‑Grunge experienced a steep decline during the 2010s, as Rock generally became less popular and Indie Rock rose to prominence.
Related Genres: Grunge, Pop Rock, Arena Rock, Hard Rock
Examples: Stone Temple Pilots, Candlebox, Bush, Silverchair, Nickelback, Creed, Godsmack, Pearl Jam, Live, Foo Fighters, Staind, Candlebox, Everclear, Puddle of Mudd
Rap Metal (1992‑2006)
Rap metal is a form of Alternative Metal that features rapped Hip Hop‑style vocals. As a heavier and more aggressive offshoot of Rap Rock, Rap Metal tended to feature a greater proportion of aggressive Hip Hop electronic percussive beats incorporating Turntablism and ‘scratching’, and lesser emphasis on the highly technical shred guitar playing of other Metal genres. Lyrics also tended to draw themes from Hip Hop music, focusing on social consciousness, misanthropy, crime, gang culture, hedonism, sedition, anti‑authoritarianism and politics.
Rap Metal’s roots date back to the late 1980s when Hardcore Hip Hop groups ironically sampled Heavy Metal and Hard Rock, and Hip Hop artists collaborated with established Metal bands (e.g. Run‑DMC and Aerosmith). Rap Metal became highly popular with MTV audiences. Rap metal’s success closely paralleled that of Alternative Rock with key bands mixing Metal with Hip Hop rising to significance.
Rap metal experienced its peak in the late 1990s heavily influencing Nu Metal’s use of down‑tuned distorted guitar riffs and percussive syncopation. Along with Alternative Metal and Nu Metal, Rap Metal fell out of popularity by the 2000s, though it continued to inspire future crossovers and cross‑fertilisations between Metal and Hip Hop.
Related Genres: Hip Hop, Hardcore Hip Hop, Rap Rock, Funk Metal, Nu Metal, Turntablism, Trap Metal
Examples: Rage Against the Machine, Skindred, Senser, Biohazard, Die Antwoord, Crazy Town, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Faith No More, Ice‑T, Run‑DMC, Public Enemy
Nu Metal (1994‑2000)
Nu Metal seemed to appear from nowhere in the late 1990s. Many of the elements that made Rap Metal popular where piled on in spades by Nu Metal artists, drawing a degree of satirical criticism in the process. Nu Metal arrangements included keyboards, turntable ‘scratching’ and Hip Hop‑style rapping. Early Nu Metal came from Metal bands collaborating with established Hip Hop artists. Nu Metal also influenced Groove Metal and Hard Rock.
The calamitous Woodstock ‘99 outdoor music festival held at Griffiss Air Force Base in New York State was tainted by difficult conditions, extortionate food prices, insufficient water supply, poor sanitation, substance abuse, sexual harassment, sexual violence, rape, rioting, looting, vandalism, arson and several deaths. This notoriety – far from the 1969 Festival’s air of peace & love 30 years earlier – directly impacted the careers of many of the Thrash Metal, Post‑Grunge, Hip Hop, Rap Metal and Nu Metal artists that appeared on the festival line up. In particular, Nu Metal’s popularity declined significantly overnight.
Related Genres: Thrash Metal, Rap Metal, Hip Hop, Groove Metal, Big Beat, Electropunk
Examples: Korn, Deftones, Limp Bizkit, Linkin Park, Papa Roach, System of a Down, Kittie, Disturbed, Biohazard, Slipknot, Godsmack, Public Enemy, Faith No More, Otep
Groove Metal (1992‑)
Groove metal, a.k.a. Post‑Thrash, is a genre heavily influenced by Thrash Metal and Hardcore Punk that dates back to the early 1990s. The style is similar to Thrash Metal, but with distorted down‑tuned guitars and a tendency to focus more on syncopated rhythms and heaviness instead of speed. The focus on creating an infectious ‘groove’ gave the genre its descriptive name. Vocals typically consist of screaming, growling or guttural singing.
Groove Metal emerged in the early 1990s with key albums like Pantera’s 5th and 6th studio albums, ‘Cowboys From Hell’ (1990) and, ‘Vulgar Display of Power’ (1992), both of which helped to raise the band’s profile and cement their Groove Metal status. As a direct result of Pantera’s popularity, many Groove Metal bands quickly appeared on the scene hoping to imitate success. Some Thrash Metal bands also experimented with, and crossed over into, Groove Metal during the 1990s to give them an edge. With the start of the new millennium, a new wave of Groove Metal bands emerged, intending to keep the genre fresh and relevant.
Related Genres: Thrash Metal, Hardcore Punk, Nu Metal
Examples: Pantera, Anthrax, Lamb of God, Machine Head, Sepultura, Fear Factory, Skinlab, Prong, White Zombie, Five Finger Death Punch, Hellyeah, Demolition Hammer, Exodus, Exhorder, DevilDriver
Dark Ambient (1993‑)
Another seemingly unlikely fusing of contrasting genres. Dark ambient springs from an earlier form called Ambient Industrial in the 1980s until it was established as a separate sub‑genre in 1993. Dark Ambient’s evolution paralleled the popularity of Ambient Electronica and Ambient Dub genres. While Metal and Ambient seem to make for unlikely bedfellows, the post‑industrial drone and gloomy soundscapes were shaped by Ambient’s (lack of) structural composition, allied to Metal’s ominous and melodramatic overtones. The resulting slow, dark and menacing ambient soundscapes were intended to alienate and isolate the listener with disturbing dissonant tones and textures. While clearly not mainstream Metal, Dark Ambient has proved influential in some areas of the genre including, particularly, the emergence of Blackgaze.
Related Genres: Ambient, Industrial Metal, Ambient Industrial, Industrial Rock, Post‑Industrial, Noise Rock, Blackgaze
Examples: Deafheaven, Agalloch, Aphex Twin, Daniel Avery, Coil, William Basinski, Blut Aus Nord, Cabaret Voltaire, Ben Chatwin, Deathprod, Esoteric, Robert Fripp, Tim Hecker, David Lynch, Mortiis, Phil Niblock, Nine Inch Nails/Trent Reznor, NON, Burzum
Folk Metal (1994‑)
Folk Metal is a sub‑genre of Metal music that developed primarily in Europe throughout the early‑mid 1990s. As the name suggests, the music itself is a fusion of Traditional Folk Music with Metal, usually with prominent use of acoustic folk instruments such as the flute, acoustic guitar, violin, accordion, and various others. However, while retaining Folk’s musical inclinations, some bands excluded instruments usually associated with folk music, replacing traditional sounds with synthesisers. Lyrics are commonly related to Folk‑related themes such as nature, legends and mythology, paganism, new age philosophy, heroism, quests, community traditions and fantasy.
The first Folk Metal artists began to appear around 1990 and began to gain popularity throughout the decade. Since the genre’s origination, several regional styles of Folk Metal have arisen, including Celtic Metal, Viking Metal and Pirate Metal. In addition to geographical variations, Folk Metal is often integrated with other, more notable Metal genres.
Related Genres: Traditional Folk Music, Folk Rock, Viking Metal, Celtic Metal, Pirate Metal, Black Metal, Symphonic Metal, Power Metal
Examples: Primordial, Moonsorrow, Finntroll, Skyclad, Blackmore’s Night, Nokturnal Mortum, Turisas, Elvenking, Cruachan, Mägo de Oz, In Extremo, Subway to Sally, Agalloch, Korpiklaani, Amon Amarth, Alestorm
Symphonic Metal (1995‑)
Symphonic Metal is a sub‑genre of Metal that features elements of symphonic and classical orchestral music. In a similar vein to more conventional Symphonic Rock bands, Symphonic Metal artists frequently make use of choirs, orchestras, chamber music, strings or synthesisers to reproduce neo‑classical elements within a deliberate Metal setting. Symphonic Metal often employs female operatic‑style singing, as well as male growling vocals.
In the mid‑1990s, Swedish Death Metal band Therion (formerly Blitzkrieg) became one of the first Metal artists to switch to the Symphonic Metal sound by extensively incorporating orchestral and classical compositional techniques. European Symphonic Metal artists soon attained relative commercial success. A Black Metal version of the genre, known as Symphonic Black Metal, also developed simultaneously in the mid‑1990s.
Related Genres: Symphonic Black Metal, Symphonic Rock, Symphonic Death Metal, Gothic Metal, Neo‑Classical Metal, Power Metal
Examples: Celtic Frost, Therion, Nightwish, Epica, Dark Sarah, Within Temptation, Fleshgod Apocalypse, Avantasia, Rhapsody of Fire, Septicflesh, Apocalyptica
Metal Era #5 – Millennium Metal: 2000‑
New Wave of American Heavy Metal (NWOAHM) (2000‑)
The New Wave of American Heavy Metal also known as New Wave of American Metal, is a Heavy Metal genre that originated in the United States (duh!) during the early‑mid 1990s and expanded rapidly in the early to mid‑2000s. Some of the bands considered to be part of the movement had formed as early as the late 1980s but did not become influential or reach commercial popularity until the following decades. The term itself borrows from NWOBHM, also focusing on location and time period, rather than a distinctive sound. The term NWOAHM was reportedly coined in 2001 by Mark Hunter, vocalist of the American band Chimaira.
Related Genres: NWOBHM, Alternative Metal, Groove Metal, Industrial Metal, Nu Metal, Metalcore
Examples: Shadows Fall, Lamb of God, God Forbid, Darkest Hour, Killswitch Engage, Unearth, Chimaira, As I Lay Dying, Trivium, …And You Will Know Us By The Trail of Dead
Blackgaze (2005‑)
Blackgaze is one of the more recent Metal trends emerging since the start of the new millennium. Blackgaze seemingly represents another incongruous fusion between the harsh and aggressive sound of Norwegian Black Metal and the more introspective, atmospheric and melodic nature of British Shoegaze and Post‑Rock. Arguably, it might have resulted from Black Metal wanting to migrate from the exile of Extreme Metal into a more commercially acceptable mainstream. Alternatively, it has been suggested that it is a deliberate move to create something different by retaining the pagan and occult foundations of Black Metal while rejecting the offensive Neo‑Nazi leanings. Whether Blackgaze, as an engineered musical crossover, is a temporary niche fad or a serious attempt for discrete genre longevity has yet to be determined, although it has already been around for nearly two decades. Perhaps Blackgaze represents a quest to refresh and rejuvenate existing styles in a new and exciting way to attract a broader audience.
Related Genres: Black Metal, Shoegaze, Post‑Rock, Atmospheric Black Metal, Post Hardcore, Ambient Metal, Dark Ambient
Examples: Alcest, Møl, Agalloch, Deafheaven, Silvayne, Wolves in the Throne Room, Amesoeurs, Harakiri for the Sky, An Autumn for Crippled Children, Exclaim!
Djent (2008‑)
Djent (pronounced ‘jent’) is possibly the most recent primary sub‑genre of Metal at the time of writing, emerging from Sweden, the UK and America in the late 2000s. Djent is sometimes referred to as Math Metal, suggesting its roots lay in Mathcore and Metalcore. Djent is a style of Progressive Metal with syncopated rhythmic structures, angular melodies, and dissonant chords. The distinctive Djent guitar sound is often colloquially referred to as ‘chugga chugga’ and makes use of the same ‘buzzsaw’ BOSS HM‑2 Heavy Metal effect pedal so beloved by Death Metal bands. Typical traits of Djent include groovy polyrhythms (often 4/3 time signature), cycling patterns of varying length with more unusual and complex time signatures, a sporadic and relatively sparse use of snare drum, crash cymbals, and repetitive heavily distorted psychedelic‑style guitar riffs, to create a frenzied, chaotic atmosphere.
Related Genres: Progressive Metal, Alternative Metal, Death Metal, Math Rock, Mathcore, Metalcore
Examples: Meshuggah, Periphery, TesseracT, Animals as Leaders, Born of Osiris, Veil of Maya, After The Burial, Vildhjara, A Life Once Lost, Monuments
Final thoughts on Metal
Right, that’s it, in a pretty large nutshell. This has been a long article but it still only scratches the tip of the iceberg (regular readers will know that I like mixing metaphors!). It feels like I’ve done justice to what’s here while recognising that there is no way I could do justice to Metal as a whole. That would take an encyclopaedic tome and it is way beyond my area of expertise to accomplish.
Strangely for such a diverse and relatively youthful top‑tier genre, there hasn’t been much in the way of Metal genre innovation, development and evolution since c.2010. Most of the advancement has been around consolidating, reviving, rejuvenating, extending and expanding existing genres. That can’t be said for the bands or the music, only for the categories within which the bands and music ‘fit’. It will be interesting to see what direction(s) Metal might take for its next genetic mutation, whenever that may happen.
“The Force is strong with this one” – Darth Vader (from Star Wars IV: A New Hope, 1977)
A quick shout out to some independent Metal record labels that work hard outside the major studio system to bring Metal to consumers. Some of these labels include Nuclear Blast, Earache Records, Napalm Records, Noise Records, Sub Pop Records and Roadrunner Records, among many others. A large number of successful independent labels have routinely been swallowed up by the big corporate music businesses wanting to capture popular niches without having to build credibility and start from scratch.
Whether we like it or not, social diversity in Metal remains an issue. Inequality lies not necessarily with the audience or consumers but with the artists, which tend to remain stubbornly in the province of straight white males. Other than bands like Halestorm, Vixen, Burning Witches, Otep, Epica, Babymetal, Lovebites, Dark Sarah, Leaves’ Eyes, Lacuna Coil, Nightwish, Draconian and Evanescence, females are woefully underrepresented. Non‑white ethnicity of Metal artists also remain resolutely few and far between, bar bands like Living Colour, Sepultura, Alice in Chains, System of a Down, DragonForce and Skindred. Rob Halford, vocalist of Judas Priest became one of the first and most prominent openly gay Metal artist, helping to pave the way for greater openness regarding sexual orientation. There is, however, clearly still more to be done to level the playing field.
While writing this article, I was quite surprised at the number of artists listed that are part of my CD collection/iTunes library, with only a few omissions around the margins. There is also a surprisingly large number of Metal artists that I have on CD/iTunes that haven’t been mentioned here (e.g. Last House on the Left, 36 Crazyfists, The City Burns, Within the Ruins, Burning Skies, Iommi, Damageplan and Cave In). Writing the article has given me a very good reason to revisit many of the great Metal albums out there, as well as to check out new (to me) Metal artists. This venture has also spurred me onto new discoveries to add to my diverse, and sometimes guilty, listening pleasures.
Albums are one thing. Experiencing live music is another. There really is no substitute for seeing Metal played live, whether it’s in a local pub, a live music venue, a stadium arena, or a fully‑fledged open‑air festival. In the UK, annual Metal festivals include Download (which superseded the now‑defunct Monsters of Rock) and Bloodstock. In Germany, there is Wacken, while in France, there is Hellfest. Last but not least, there are Aftershock, Louder Than Life and Rockville in the US. These are just a few; there are numerous Metal Festivals in most countries around the globe if one is motivated to look for them. Keep Music Live.
Some of the most impressive and entertaining concerts the author has attended over the years have been Metal gigs, including German Industrial Metal band, Rammstein in 2022. Another great experience was seeing Black Sabbath’s penultimate gig of their ‘The End’ tour in 2017, concluding their long career (41 years after I first saw them play live). I also saw Metallica in 2009 and again headlining at Glastonbury Festival in 2014 (NB. the first Metal band to do so).
Demonstrating that times have indeed changed, there is a growing acceptance of the global cultural importance of Metal. The Mongolian Heavy Metal band The HU (NB. Hu is the root of the word ‘human being’ in the Mongolian language) was named as a UNESCO Artist for Peace in 2022. The Hu’s music addresses the themes of gender equality, respect for difference and the importance of protecting nature.
A Metal gear plug
No, not the prongy thingy that you insert into a wall socket for electrical power. Rather a bit of shameless, flagrant self‑promotion. Why not take a browse around CRAVE (Cool & Rare American Vintage Electric) Guitars’ web site for some Metal‑minded matters?
Possibly my favourite vintage guitar is the Gibson Explorer, which is an ideal axe for heavier types of Rock, such as Metal. The Explorer’s ‘Dirty Fingers’ humbucking pickups featured on all CRAVE’s Explorers are absolutely superb. Explorers are great guitars to play and sound great. That’s probably why CRAVE Guitars has five of them, ranging from 1979 to 1983. The Gibson Flying V is another Metal favourite, although I find them unwieldy in comparison. Then there is the Gibson SG, complete with its own ‘devil horns’. Interestingly, while the Gibson Les Paul is commonly used for hard rock, it doesn’t seem to be as favoured by Metal guitarists.
Most Fender guitars aren’t really suited to Metal and don’t tend to appear often in the hands of Metal guitarists, bar a few notable exceptions such as Iron Maiden and John 5. Fender, however, did inspire the slinky ‘Super Strats’ favoured by a large number of shred Metal guitarists from the 1980s onward.
Guitar Brands such as Jackson, Charvel, Ibanez, ESP/LTD, EVH, Schecter, BC Rich, Dean and latterly PRS are more likely to be seen on TV and Metal stages in the 21st Century. PRS in particular were associated with Nu‑Metal guitarists in the 1990s. Many modern shred‑style guitars use the popular and specialised EMG active pickups and Floyd Rose vibrato systems.
Fender Precision bass guitars with their solid, percussive fundamentals are well suited to Metal, as are basses from the likes of Music Man, Ibanez, Warwick, Lakland, Schecter, Rickenbacker and ESP/LTD.
As far as CRAVE Effects goes, there are some interesting metal‑oriented stomp boxes including the aforementioned legendary 1980s BOSS HM‑2 Heavy Metal. There is an original 1960s Dallas‑Arbiter Fuzz Face (think, Hendrix) and vintage Tone Benders from Sola Sound and Colorsound, an early English Marshall The Guv’nor and a filthy ProCo Rat. Then, from Japan, there are also the OTT Ibanez SD9 Sonic Distortion and SM9 Super Metal effects to really push an amp’s front end as well as the obligatory Ibanez TS9 Tube Screamer. Then there is my all‑time favourite, the Electro‑Harmonix Big Muff π fuzz pedal from 1977.
CRAVE Amps are generally clean American low gain affairs (but great as a platform for pedals). There are plenty of high gain amps out there ideally suited for creating Metal mayhem, including Marshall, Peavey, Orange, Mesa Engineering, Friedman, Diezel, EVH Gear, PRS, Engel, Hiwatt, Hughes & Kettner, Bogner, Randall, BOSS and Soldano.
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Album of the Month’
For this article, there really can only be one logical choice. I mentioned at the top of this article that there was an identifiable moment that the Antichrist of Heavy Metal was born. While the Devil’s spawn may have been conceived earlier, there was nothing like it before and rock music changed forever after.
Black Sabbath – Black Sabbath (1970) – Wow! What an entrance from four ordinary lads from Birmingham, England; Ozzy Osbourne (vocals), Tony Iommi (guitar), Geezer Butler (bass) and Bill Ward (drummer). From the now‑iconic, gothic and clearly occult‑ish cover to the dark and ominous musical content, this was one of those milestone studio albums that literally changed the musical zeitgeist. It isn’t the polished, glossily produced, technically proficient album of much 21st Century Metal but back in 1970 it hit hard and, more importantly, it brims with raw passion and emotion. Who knows what would have happened had it not been for Black Sabbath’s savage seven tracks spanning a mere 38 minutes. If it was released today, it probably wouldn’t make much of an impression. However, the ground‑breaking debut has stood the test of time over the last 54 years and will likely continue to impress open‑minded metalheads for the next 54.
So shocking to the conservative majority was this album’s release that it was received with hysterical claims of sinister satanic worship, panic‑stricken proclamations of occult practices and dire warnings of the adverse effect on disillusioned uneducated youths looking for an alternative way to express their suppressed inner angst. Media histrionics added fuel to the frantic fire and headlines’ disproportionate doom mongering perversely helped to cement Black Sabbath’s dark and broody reputation. That is irony. One wonders what those same critics would have made of today’s Extreme Metal. Thankfully, most of us now know much better. I think we can all agree that the real world dangers of today are far, far scarier.
[Image: Black Sabbath ‑ Black Sabbath (1970)]
While many fans might cite, ‘Paranoid’ (also 1970) as being the archetypal Sabbath studio album, particularly given the band’s signature title track, it remains a sophomore release that builds on and reinforces their stunning debut. Together, the two albums made 1970 a pivotal year for Rock and vital for the emergence and enduring popularity of Heavy Metal.
“As long as there are kids who are pissed off and have no real way in venting out that anger, heavy metal will live on” – Ozzy Osbourne (Black Sabbath, 1948‑)
Tailpiece
That’s it for this Magnificent Metal Masterpiece (conceited gratuitous alliteration as usual). I trust that it has been an interesting excursion into the heavier and darker side of modern music. I hope that newcomers to Metal found something worth extra exploration (there is plenty of further reading on the hinterwebby thingummy) and I hope readers already familiar with Metal found something enjoyable hidden in the deep dark depths of the discourse.
As a guitarist, the author has dabbled with Metal on and off over the years, although my leanings were more towards Psychedelic/Space Rock/Stoner Rock/Metal. Unfortunately, my limited abilities, poor technical skill and a complete lack of playing speed mean that I never felt confident trying to master it.
Time for a worthy acknowledgement. My son is a long-time confirmed metalhead and I sought his input when writing this article. Many thanks to him for his valuable insights and suggestions. The outcome is much better for it.
A quick, unrelated postscript. Apologies to recent visitors to the CRAVE Guitars website. There is a technical issue with the site’s theme and it is causing problems with both downtime and poor presentation of images. Hopefully, things should be resolved soon. It annoys me as much as it does everyone else.
Next month, we’ll be looking at… erm… err… I have absolutely no idea. One thing is for sure, though, it will be different, again. Watch for this cavernous space to be suitably filled in due course.
Truth, peace, love, and guitar music be with you always. Until next time…
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Quote of the Month’: “If only I could forget much of what I remember and remember some of what I forgot”
GARRULOUS GREETINGS AND A HEARTY“hello” once again to the global guitar gathering as seen through the laidback lenticular lens of CRAVE (Cool & Rare American Vintage Electric) Guitars. Whether you are a first‑time visitor or a long‑time returnee, all with peaceful intentions are welcome here.
This month, we are concluding the 3‑part exploration on the current status of civilian‑grade Artificial Intelligence (AI) and its perspective on vintage guitars within the context of the wider music industry. This time around, we’ll take the investigation of Generative AI’s (GAI) impact beyond the narrow domain of vintage guitars and look at the bigger picture. In addition to vintage guitars, we will take a look at music, the music business, music tools and equipment, live performance, production, promotion, distribution and access. As a final parting shot on the subject, I’ll take a personal philosophical look at AI’s future intentions for us poor old human beans.
At the time of writing, it seems that we don’t need AI to forecast the ‘end of days’ for the human race. We have plenty enough diabolical demagogues teetering on the brink of bringing about just that suicidal eventuality right now. We don’t need AI to tell us that, as a species, we have learned absolutely nothing from the ravages of our past and, perhaps, we deserve what we get as a result. All I will say is, “Klaatu Barada Nickto” (From the film, ‘The Day The Earth Stood Still’, 1951).
“The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race. Once humans develop artificial intelligence, it will take off on its own, and redesign itself at an ever‑increasing rate” – Stephen Hawking (theoretical physicist and cosmologist, 1942‑2018)
AI revisited (again)
The previous two articles focused on narrative (Part I) and visual (Part II) aspects of the vintage guitar experience. Once again, there is really no need for introductory explanations. If you wish to review the preceding articles leading up to this one, or are coming at it for the first time, you can revisit those blogs by following the links below (open in a new browser window):
The scope of this third article in the series is quite broad, wider than in the first two articles. At its core, though, remains the topic of vintage guitars, amps and effects and the small but vital part they play in music today. While it has less of a focus on vintage instruments and equipment, it is all part of the same ‘micro/macro’ world, a connection that AI overlooked back in Part I.
Up to now, the articles concentrated largely on the past and present. This third article is very much future focused, so we’ll see what AI has to say about what is to come on and what may be over the digital horizon. Perhaps, someone will look back at this article at some point in years to come and gauge how far AI has come and how accurate AI has been at predicting the future.
Humans tend to shy away from radical change and are innately conservative. How we deal with the challenges that AI poses will be pivotal. AI will either enhance or inhibit human development? It is currently up to us to decide which. The debate rages on and will do for some time to come. These heated conversations aren’t just centring on music, they are pretty much across every economic sphere of production.
“I had two passions growing up – one was music, one was technology. I tried to play in a band for a while, but I was never talented enough to make it. And I started companies. One day came along and I decided to combine the two – and there was Spotify” – Daniel Ek (founder and CEO of Spotify, 1983‑)
The rationale
Make no mistake, AI has already made its mark in music. Whether it is in the way of song writing and music creation through recording and producing to distribution and enhancing the consumer’s experience. AI is here already and it isn’t going to go away. Going forward, there is no longer any doubt that AI’s role in music will be increasingly expansive, whether we like it or not
The arguments posed by many artists is that AI is incapable of capturing and mastering the artistic expression of music. Music has a rich history and deep emotional ties and these are not easily replicated by machines. Before we go too far, let us be clear that the same applies to many human musicians! Inspiration is rare and not easy to reproduce or we’d all be using it to get rich in the process. It isn’t clear whether the egotistical view that the human spirit is inimitable is born from a reluctance to embrace technology’s potential. The instinctive defensive reaction is to attempt to protect human creativity at all costs. Similarly, it is not certain whether it is possible for a machine to create intelligent artistic outcomes.
Can music generated by IT algorithms be considered authentic musical art? Art is an inward and outward expression of human emotion, experience, and creativity. These are characteristics that sceptics say a machine simply cannot possess. The current state‑of‑the‑art AI has a hard time translating technical data into sensitive music, struggling to infuse its outputs with sincerity, passion and feeling. Yet. I am sure that soon, we won’t be able to assert these facts with any genuine certainty.
From the composition of musical melody and harmony to generating complex musical arrangements, AI already has the ability to create ‘original’ pieces that can (allegedly) rival the work of human composers. As the technology is derivative, AI has yet to develop the ability to exceed human talents. It would be an act of hubris to suggest that AI cannot follow the same scientific principles, musical rules and tropes that humans have abided by for centuries or even millennia. AI can achieve considerable complexity in a fraction of the time that a human can exact the same tasks. It is still the ‘intelligent’ aspect that vexes most commentators.
AI doesn’t care one iota about music and it doesn’t even know what music is. To AI, music is simply another digital computational process, albeit one that seems amazingly expert to us. However, AI doesn’t have any conscious investment in music and it can’t tell rock ‘n’ roll from a rock in the ground. Professional musicians have spent entire careers trying to perfect their skills and they are understandably concerned about AI’s impact on their livelihoods. While I understand that point of view, having reservations isn’t going to stop the tsunami coming their way. In the Darwinian sense, it will be, ‘adapt or die’ (metaphorically speaking of course).
“The idea that machines can’t do things humans can is a pure myth” – Marvin Minsky (American cognitive and computer scientist, 1927‑2016)
There are already AI‑powered virtual instruments in the form of plugins integrated into DAWs (Digital Audio Workstations). Studios are already using AI tools to improve mixing, producing and mastering techniques. AI has the potential to be a powerful collaborative tool, as long as we are prepared to accept the consequences of such a ‘partnership’. AI is simply becoming another tool in the artist’s repertoire and surely it is just a logical extension of the use of digital electronics that studio and stage engineers have been using for the past 40 years. For instance, we would no longer think of salvaging a 20,000 gallon water tank to create a single analogue reverb chamber effect, when we have digital electronics that can provide thousands of credible permutations with the click of a mouse. Let’s get real here.
AI automation can and will result in job displacement, let’s not shy away from the fact; it is inevitable. Technical roles in the music industry such as producers, sound engineers, mixers and mastering specialists may be under threat. Similarly, even some session musicians may be adversely affected. However, the contrary argument is that AI opens doors to a diverse range of new opportunities and it will create new skills and expertise that have hitherto been either underappreciated or non‑existent. Threats to livelihoods have always existed and it will be imperative to drive change in the industry, rather than become a victim of it.
“The arrival of general AI will force us to confront a new sense of ourselves, as well as a universe that is both more strange and more wonderful than we could have imagined” – Ray Kurzweil (American computer scientist, 1948‑)
There are also legal issues. If an AI created song becomes commercially successful, who owns the rights? Is it the end‑user of the technology, the system developer, the creator of the data sets used to inform AI, or the machine itself? Currently, the law sides with the end‑user. A guitar manufacturer cannot claim Intellectual Property (IP) rights simply because a musician used their instrument. Neither can the owner of an arboretum where the tree grows to source the wood used in said instrument. You get the idea.
AI has already replaced humans, at least in the areas of commercial recorded background music and around the periphery, even if you aren’t aware of it. AI ‘artists’ have already been created and AI has been used to resurrect dead artists (e.g. John Lennon). AI is used on virtual reality concerts streamed over the Internet or to live audiences (e.g. Abba, Elvis Presley, Nat King Cole, Frank Sinatra, etc.). However, humans will still be needed for the time being to innovate and break conventional boundaries in mainstream and underground music. As yet, though, nothing can really substitute for the genuine human experience. Live music is largely safe… for now.
Instead of viewing AI as a threat, many artists will see it as a vital device that can help to give them a strategic advantage in an increasingly competitive industry and in highly saturated markets. AI’s current course in music suggests an even more integrated future. Berklee College of Music in Boston, MA, USA suggests that up to 60% of artists already make use of AI techniques to help unlock their potential. This human/AI collaboration can redefine artistic boundaries, enable experimentation and give rise to genres and ground‑breaking sounds previously unimaginable, if we allow it. AI can help to broaden musicians’ creative horizons beyond the familiar. The potential synergy between human musicians and AI presents exciting opportunities and challenges for the future of music. Wasn’t it ever thus?
“It’s not artificial intelligence I’m worried about, it’s human stupidity” – Neil Jacobstein (Chair of the Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Track at Singularity University)
So… there you have both sides of a musical and ethical difference of opinion. Now it is time to turn that debate over to GAI…
The CRAVE Guitars’ test
For the final time, I will present AI with some challenges and see how AI responds. As before, I will let the AI do the hard work and leave my critique until the end of the article.
Apologies for repeating the following list yet again. I suggested eight benchmarks for evaluating AI’s responses, summarised below:
To understand a question correctly without over‑specificity
To interpret and extrapolate relevant information objectively within a wider context
To present a cogent argument that can adequately be judged and/or challenged
To form a genuine opinion from scratch without relevant information being readily available in the first place, in the same way that a person might do in the case of uncertainty
To debate the initial result to achieve a potentially better outcome
To produce a creative response that improves on the original information input by humans
To remember what it has already output
To understand fully what humans want or expect from ‘intelligence’
Once more, twenty questions were posed to AI about vintage guitars and various aspects of the music industry. What follows are the verbatim results. Nothing has been added or removed. What you see is what I got. Apologies for the repetition up to this point.
Time for me to take a backseat until later in the article. I’m off to put the kettle on, put my feet up and consume multiple warm beverages. Health warning: AI can lead to a sedentary and indolent lifestyle! Bye for now…
Twenty Questions and Twenty AI Responses
Question #1 – What is AI’s role in current new guitar and bass design and manufacturing?
AI Response #1
AI is playing an increasingly significant role in the design and manufacturing of guitars. Here are some ways AI is being utilised:
Personalised Designs: AI can analyse player preferences, such as playing style and hand size, to create custom guitars tailored to individual needs.
Generative Design: AI can generate organic, biomimetic shapes, leading to innovative designs that were previously impossible.
Sustainability: AI helps manufacturers reduce waste and energy consumption, resulting in more environmentally friendly guitar production.
Simulation Software: Designers can simulate the guitar’s performance and sound quality, allowing for real‑time adjustments and early identification of design flaws.
Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing): This technology enables the creation of physical prototypes, helping designers evaluate and refine the guitar’s design before production.
Overall, AI tools are transforming guitar design by enabling more efficient, sustainable, and personalised manufacturing processes.
Question #2 – How is AI contributing towards wider musical equipment technology?
AI Response #2
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has significantly impacted the field of music technology, revolutionizing various aspects of music creation, production, and performance. Let’s delve into how AI is shaping the world of musical equipment:
Smart Algorithms in Mixing and Audio Editing:
Many audio plugins now incorporate smart algorithms that draw on human experience. These algorithms apply frequency correction or normalisation presets to enhance audio quality during mixing and editing.
These AI‑driven tools assist musicians and producers in achieving professional sound without extensive manual adjustments.
Composition and Music Generation:
AI has made a major impact in the realm of composition. Services like Aiva utilize deep learning algorithms to create beautiful music across various genres.
Aiva’s virtual brain is modelled after how a human brain works. It recalls past experiences and problem‑solving to refine its results. By analysing vast amounts of data (such as classical music archives), Aiva recognizes patterns in chord structures, melodies, and arrangement choices.
The resulting AI‑generated tracks are increasingly indistinguishable from compositions by human musicians.
AI‑Driven Music Production Tools:
Over the past decade, AI has transformed music mixing and mastering. Apps like Landr, Cryo Mix, and iZotope’s Neutron automatically analyse tracks, balance audio levels, and remove noise.
These tools enhance efficiency and consistency in the production process, allowing artists to focus on creativity.
New Sounds and Beats:
AI’s ability to analyse sound characteristics using deep neural networks has led to the creation of new sounds. By drawing from existing music and theory, AI generates fresh beats and melodies.
Musicians can explore novel sonic possibilities, pushing the boundaries of traditional instruments and arrangements.
Music Education and Research:
AI, combined with audio big data, contributes to Music Information Retrieval (MIR). MIR extracts audio features based on signal processing and employs machine learning techniques.
Researchers use AI to analyse music theory, composition, and performance, advancing our understanding of music.
In summary, AI’s influence on musical equipment technology extends beyond mere automation. It empowers musicians, enhances creativity, and opens up exciting avenues for the future of music.
Question #3 – How can AI contribute towards the conservation of vintage guitars and basses?
AI Response #3
AI can contribute significantly to the conservation of vintage guitars in several ways:
Digital Restoration: AI can restore old photographs and videos of iconic luthiers and vintage guitars, enhancing the quality and clarity of historical records.
Predictive Maintenance: By analysing data from sensors placed on vintage guitars, AI can predict when and what kind of maintenance is needed to preserve their condition.
Material Analysis: AI can assist in analysing the materials and construction techniques of vintage guitars, providing insights for conservation efforts.
Sound Analysis: Machine learning algorithms can analyse the sound of vintage guitars to understand how they have changed over time and how to maintain their original sound.
3D Scanning and Modelling: AI can help create detailed 3D models of vintage guitars, which can be used for educational purposes or to replicate parts that are no longer available.
These applications of AI not only help in preserving the physical aspects of vintage guitars but also ensure that their legacy and the craftsmanship behind them are documented and passed down to future generations.
Question #4 ‑ How can AI contribute towards the conservation of vintage guitar amplifiers and effect pedals?
AI Response #4
AI can be a powerful ally in the conservation of vintage guitar amplifiers and effect pedals, offering several innovative approaches:
Emulation and Modelling: AI can be used to create digital models of vintage amplifiers and pedals, allowing musicians to access classic sounds without using the original, fragile equipment.
Predictive Analysis: AI algorithms can analyse the condition of electronic components over time, predicting failures and suggesting preventive maintenance to prolong the life of the equipment.
Restoration Guidance: AI can guide technicians through the restoration process, suggesting optimal methods and materials that preserve the original sound and functionality.
Sound Preservation: By analysing the unique sounds of vintage gear, AI can help in creating a digital library of tones and effects, ensuring that the sonic legacy of these devices is not lost.
Component Analysis: AI can assist in identifying and sourcing authentic components for repair and restoration, ensuring that the vintage gear remains as close to its original state as possible.
These contributions of AI not only help in maintaining the physical integrity of vintage amplifiers and pedals but also ensure that their distinctive sounds continue to inspire musicians for generations to come.
Question #5 – How can AI contribute towards future guitar innovation, design and manufacturing developments that will one day become vintage?
AI Response #5
AI’s contribution to future guitar innovation, design, and manufacturing is expected to be transformative, with several key areas of impact:
Customisation: AI can analyse vast amounts of data on player preferences and ergonomics to create highly personalised guitars that cater to the specific needs of individual musicians.
Sound Modelling: Advanced machine learning algorithms can emulate the sounds of vintage guitars, allowing new guitars to have the sought‑after tones of classic models.
Quality Control: AI can enhance quality control in manufacturing, ensuring that each guitar meets high standards of craftsmanship and consistency.
Material Innovation: AI can assist in discovering new materials and construction methods that replicate the qualities of vintage guitars while being more sustainable and durable.
Predictive Analytics: By predicting trends and consumer preferences, AI can guide the design of guitars that are likely to become future classics.
These contributions are poised to revolutionise the guitar industry, making it more innovative, efficient, and responsive to the needs of musicians around the world.
Question #6 – Where do vintage guitars fit into the wider current day music industry?
AI Response #6
Vintage guitars hold a special place in the modern music industry, serving as a bridge between the rich musical heritage of the past and the innovative sounds of the present. Here’s how they fit into today’s musical landscape:
Timeless Sound and Design: Vintage guitars are renowned for their distinctive designs and the unique sound quality they produce. Musicians often seek out these instruments for their ability to create authentic tones that newer models can’t replicate. They are not just tools for making music but are also seen as works of art and symbols of musical eras gone by.
Influence on Modern Music: The influence of vintage guitars extends across genres, from rock and blues to jazz and even contemporary pop. Their sound has shaped the music we listen to today, and many modern musicians still prefer vintage guitars for their unparalleled tonal qualities.
Collectible Value: Beyond their musical capabilities, vintage guitars are also valuable collectibles. They represent a time and place in musical history, embodying the legacy of innovation and craftsmanship. For collectors and enthusiasts, owning a vintage guitar is akin to possessing a piece of music history.
Inspiration for New Models: Modern guitar manufacturers often look to vintage guitars for inspiration when designing new models. The classic aesthetics and sound of vintage guitars continue to influence the development of new instruments, ensuring that the spirit of the vintage era lives on in the music industry.
Cultural Significance: Vintage guitars carry cultural significance, representing the evolution of music and the impact of iconic musicians who played them. They are a testament to the enduring appeal of the guitar as an instrument and its role in shaping the cultural landscape.
In essence, vintage guitars are more than just musical instruments; they are cultural icons that continue to inspire musicians and captivate audiences, maintaining their relevance in a rapidly evolving music industry.
Question #7 – What does the future hold for vintage guitars, basses, amplifiers and effect pedals?
AI Response #7
The future of vintage guitars, basses, amplifiers, and effect pedals looks quite promising, with several trends indicating a continued appreciation and demand for these classic instruments and gear. Here’s what we can expect:
Vintage Guitars: The allure of vintage guitars is expected to persist, with a focus on craftsmanship, exclusivity, and historical significance. Collectors and musicians alike will likely continue to seek out these instruments for their unique sound, aesthetic appeal, and investment potential. The market for vintage guitars is anticipated to see growth, especially in regions like North America and Asia Pacific.
Bass Guitars: High‑end bass guitars are gaining attention, with premium models from brands like Rickenbacker, Fender, and Fodera being highlighted for their quality. The bass guitar scene is evolving, with discussions around its future in the music industry and the potential for new genres to reinvigorate interest in the instrument.
Guitar Amplifiers: The guitar amp market is embracing both vintage features and futuristic technology. There’s a trend towards recreating classic amps as well as developing new models packed with advanced tech. The future may see a blend of the best of the past with innovative features that cater to modern players’ needs.
Effect Pedals: Guitar effects pedals are becoming more varied and sophisticated, with new models based on classic gear and all‑new combinations. The industry is witnessing a surge in creativity and innovation, with digital modelling and emulation playing significant roles in the development of new pedals.
In summary, the future for vintage musical gear is one of reverence for the past combined with an embrace of new technologies and trends. This balance ensures that vintage instruments and gear will remain integral to the music industry, cherished for their legacy and continued influence on modern music.
Question #8 ‑ How can AI help to improve the knowledge of people interested in vintage guitars and basses?
AI Response #8
Artificial Intelligence (AI) can significantly enhance the knowledge of enthusiasts and collectors of vintage guitars and basses in several ways:
Personalized Recommendations: AI can analyse individual preferences and historical data to suggest vintage guitars and basses that align with a user’s taste or playing style.
Virtual Restoration: AI can simulate the restoration process of vintage instruments, allowing users to see potential outcomes without physically altering the instrument.
Market Analysis: AI can track market trends, auction results, and pricing data to help collectors understand the value of their instruments and make informed buying or selling decisions.
Authenticity Verification: By comparing images and specifications, AI can assist in verifying the authenticity of vintage guitars and basses, helping to prevent fraud.
Educational Content: AI can generate educational content, such as articles or videos that delve into the history, craftsmanship, and cultural significance of vintage instruments.
Interactive Learning: Through interactive apps and software, AI can provide virtual lessons and historical context about specific models and brands.
Sound Analysis: AI can analyse the sound characteristics of vintage guitars and basses, helping users understand the unique tonal qualities of their instruments.
Design Innovation: AI can assist designers in creating new instruments inspired by vintage models, using machine learning to incorporate desirable features and aesthetics.
By leveraging these AI capabilities, people interested in vintage guitars and basses can deepen their understanding and appreciation of these instruments, make better‑informed decisions, and connect with a community of like‑minded individuals.
Question #9 – Why do many professional guitarists still play vintage, rather than modern instruments when recording or preforming live?
AI Response #9
Many professional guitarists opt for vintage instruments over modern ones when recording or performing live due to a combination of factors that contribute to the unique appeal of these classic instruments:
Tonal Quality: Vintage guitars are often sought after for their superior tonal quality. Over time, the wood in these instruments matures, affecting the resonance and producing a richer, more nuanced sound that many believe cannot be replicated by newer guitars.
Craftsmanship: The level of craftsmanship in vintage guitars is frequently cited as being higher than that of many mass‑produced modern instruments. They were often made with more labour‑intensive techniques and higher‑quality materials, which can contribute to both the sound and durability of the instrument.
Historical Significance: Playing a vintage instrument connects musicians to the history of their craft. These guitars have been part of iconic performances and recordings, and they carry a legacy that many artists find inspiring.
Exclusivity: Vintage instruments are unique, with each one having its own story and character. This exclusivity can be appealing to professionals who want an instrument that stands out both visually and sonically.
Investment Value: Beyond their musical qualities, vintage guitars can be a good investment. Their value tends to appreciate over time, making them not just tools for performance but also valuable assets.
Personal Preference: Ultimately, the choice often comes down to personal preference. Many guitarists simply prefer the feel and sound of a vintage guitar, finding that it suits their style and the music they create.
These factors combine to make vintage instruments a popular choice for many professional guitarists, both in the studio and on stage.
Question #10 – How can AI help music companies to improve their business practices and become more profitable?
AI Response #10
Artificial Intelligence (AI) can significantly enhance the business practices of music companies and contribute to increased profitability in several ways:
Revolutionizing Production: AI can streamline the music production process, making it more accessible and efficient. For instance, AI‑driven technology can assist aspiring artists in creating professional‑sounding music with minimal equipment, thereby reducing production costs.
Optimizing Music Management: AI can help music companies manage their catalogues more effectively by auto‑tagging songs with accurate metadata, which is crucial for organising and categorising music across platforms.
Improving Royalty Management: AI can facilitate better royalty management by accurately tracking song plays and ensuring that artists and rights holders are compensated fairly.
Curating Playlists with Precision: With AI, music companies can curate playlists that resonate with listeners’ preferences, leading to increased engagement and potential revenue from streaming services.
Efficient Tour Planning: AI can analyse data to help plan tours more efficiently, identifying the best locations and times for concerts to maximize attendance and profits.
Content Creation Assistance: AI can assist in content creation, providing tools for musicians to generate new music or enhance existing tracks, potentially leading to more creative outputs and a broader appeal.
Data‑Driven A&R Decisions: AI can provide valuable insights into fan engagement and market trends, helping A&R (Artists and Repertoire) departments make informed decisions about signing artists or promoting music.
By integrating AI into their operations, music companies can leverage these advancements to reduce costs, optimize processes, and create more engaging content, ultimately leading to increased profitability and success in the competitive music industry.
Question #11 – How can AI help guitarists to access, learn and improve their musical playing skills?
AI Response #11
AI can be a powerful ally for guitarists looking to access, learn, and improve their musical playing skills. Here’s how AI can assist:
Personalized Learning: AI can analyse a guitarist’s playing style and provide personalized feedback and practice routines. This can help guitarists focus on areas that need improvement and track their progress over time.
Chord and Scale Recognition: AI tools can listen to music and identify chords and scales, making it easier for guitarists to learn new songs and understand music theory.
Virtual Tutors: AI‑powered virtual tutors can guide guitarists through lessons, provide real‑time corrections, and offer tips to enhance their technique.
Song Writing Assistance: AI can help guitarists with song writing by suggesting chord progressions, melodies, and even lyrics that complement their style.
Access to Online Resources: AI can curate and recommend online resources, such as tutorials, exercises, and educational content, tailored to the guitarist’s skill level and interests.
Enhanced Practice Sessions: With AI, guitarists can have more efficient practice sessions by using tools that track their playing and suggest improvements, making practice more productive.
By leveraging AI, guitarists can gain access to a wealth of resources and personalized guidance that can accelerate their learning and enhance their musical abilities.
Question #12 – How can AI help music artists and bands to improve their arrangements and song writing?
AI Response #12
AI can significantly aid music artists and bands in enhancing their arrangements and song writing in several innovative ways:
Melody and Harmony Generation: AI can generate new melodies and harmonies, providing artists with a broader palette of musical ideas to choose from. Tools like MuseNet can create compositions with various instruments and styles, offering inspiration and starting points for new songs.
Style Emulation: AI can analyse the work of specific artists or genres and emulate their style, allowing musicians to experiment with different sounds and techniques in their arrangements.
Lyric Writing: AI can assist in lyric writing by suggesting phrases and rhymes, which can be particularly helpful during creative blocks or when seeking fresh perspectives.
Arrangement Optimization: AI can suggest changes to an arrangement by analysing the song’s structure and providing feedback on how to improve its flow and impact.
Efficiency in Composition: AI‑powered tools can speed up the song writing process by quickly generating musical elements, allowing artists to focus on refining and personalising their work.
Collaborative Song Writing: AI can act as a collaborative partner, offering suggestions and alternatives that might not have been considered, leading to more diverse and creative outcomes.
By integrating AI into their creative processes, artists and bands can unlock new possibilities in song writing and arrangement, pushing the boundaries of their musical expression.
Question #13 – How can AI help to promote a music artist or band?
AI Response #13
AI can revolutionise the promotion of music artists and bands in several impactful ways:
Target Audience Identification: AI can analyse vast amounts of data to identify and understand the target audience for an artist or band, ensuring that promotional efforts are directed at the most receptive listeners.
Personalised Marketing Campaigns: By leveraging AI, music companies can create highly personalised marketing campaigns that resonate with individual listeners, increasing engagement and loyalty.
Social Media Monitoring and Analysis: AI tools can monitor social media activity, providing insights into audience preferences and trends, which can inform more effective promotional strategies.
Predictive Trend Analysis: AI can predict future trends, helping artists and bands to stay ahead of the curve and align their music and marketing with upcoming movements.
Efficiency and Automation: AI‑driven platforms can automate many aspects of music promotion, from distributing content to scheduling posts, freeing up artists to focus on their music.
Collaboration Discovery: AI can identify potential collaboration opportunities by matching artists with similar styles or fan bases, leading to mutually beneficial partnerships.
Content Creation: AI can assist in creating promotional content, such as music videos or artwork that is tailored to the artist’s brand and audience preferences.
By integrating AI into their promotional activities, music artists and bands can achieve more targeted, efficient, and effective outreach, ultimately leading to greater visibility and success in the industry.
Question #14 – How can AI help to improve live music concert performance?
AI Response #14
AI can enhance live music concert performances in several innovative ways, making the experience more immersive and personalised for both artists and audiences:
Visual Displays: AI can create dynamic visual displays that sync with the music, providing a more engaging and visually captivating experience.
Personalised Set Lists: By analysing social media data and other online interactions, AI can help performers generate set lists that resonate with the preferences of their audience.
Virtual Backgrounds and Special Effects: Performers can incorporate realistic virtual backgrounds and special effects into their shows, adding a new dimension to the live experience.
Intelligent Lighting: AI‑driven lighting systems can react in real‑time to the music, enhancing the atmosphere and mood of the performance.
Real‑Time Audience Interaction: AI can analyse audience reactions in real‑time, allowing performers to adjust their performance on the fly to better engage with their fans.
Enhanced Sound Quality: AI tools can optimise sound quality by adjusting levels and effects in real‑time, ensuring the best possible audio experience for the audience.
Efficient Stage Management: AI can streamline stage management, from set changes to equipment handling, making transitions smoother and reducing the potential for errors.
By integrating AI into live performances, artists can offer a more polished and high‑tech show, while audiences can enjoy a more interactive and memorable concert experience.
Question #15 – How can AI improve live music venue sound and lighting?
AI Response #15
AI can significantly improve the sound and lighting at live music venues, enhancing the overall experience for both performers and audiences. Here’s how AI contributes to these improvements:
Sound Quality:
Real‑Time Acoustic Adjustment: AI‑driven audio technology can analyse a venue’s acoustics and adapt audio settings in real‑time, ensuring optimal sound quality during performances.
Automated Mixing: Machine learning algorithms can assist live sound engineers by automatically mixing and adjusting audio levels, which helps in delivering a polished and professional audio experience.
Lighting:
Synchronized Displays: AI can program lighting systems to sync perfectly with the music, creating a stunning visual experience that complements the performance.
Adaptive Lighting Systems: AI‑powered lighting can adjust in real‑time to the music’s beat, melody, or even the performers’ movements, enhancing the atmosphere and mood of the event.
By leveraging AI, live music venues can offer a more immersive and memorable concert experience, with sound and lighting that are not only high‑quality but also responsive and dynamic.
Question #16 – How can AI improve music studio recording, mixing, producing and mastering processes?
AI Response #16
AI has the potential to significantly improve the processes of recording, producing, and mastering music in the following ways:
Recording:
Noise Reduction: AI can automatically detect and eliminate background noise, ensuring cleaner recordings.
Performance Enhancement: AI tools can provide real‑time feedback to artists, helping them improve their technique during the recording process.
Mixing:
Efficiency: AI tools can balance levels, pan audio, and apply EQ settings automatically for a polished mix.
Smart Plugins: Smart plugins can analyse the audio and suggest improvements or apply them directly.
Producing:
Efficiency: AI can automate routine tasks like audio levelling and EQ adjustments, allowing producers to focus on the creative aspects of music production.
Creative Assistance: AI can generate musical elements such as melodies and harmonies, offering new creative possibilities for producers.
Mastering:
Sound Quality: AI mastering tools use machine learning algorithms to enhance the overall sound quality, making tracks sound more polished and professional.
Speed: AI can master tracks much faster than traditional methods, speeding up the production cycle.
By integrating AI into these processes, music studios can achieve higher quality results with greater efficiency and creativity.
Question #17 – How can AI help to improve music distribution channels in the future?
AI Response #17
AI can improve music distribution channels in the future by:
Agile Distribution: AI can enable a more agile distribution approach, allowing local and niche musicians to bypass traditional label‑artist‑distribution company models. This can help artists secure royalties without the complex revenue structures that typically leave them with a smaller cut.
Data‑Driven Insights: AI can provide data‑driven insights into consumer behaviour, preferences, and trends, which can help music companies tailor their distribution strategies to maximise reach and profitability.
Automated Content Delivery: AI can automate the delivery of music content across various platforms, ensuring that new releases are efficiently distributed to all relevant channels.
Enhanced Discovery: AI algorithms can improve music discovery for consumers by recommending songs and artists based on listening habits, leading to increased exposure for artists.
Royalty Tracking and Management: AI can improve the accuracy of royalty tracking and management, ensuring that artists are fairly compensated for the use of their music.
Predictive Analytics: AI can use predictive analytics to forecast music trends and consumer demand, helping labels and artists to plan releases and marketing campaigns more effectively.
By leveraging these AI capabilities, music distribution channels can become more efficient, equitable, and responsive to the needs of both artists and consumers.
Question #18 – How can AI help consumers to improve access to, and to discover, existing and new music?
AI Response #18
AI can greatly assist consumers in improving access to and discovering both existing and new music in several ways:
Personalised Recommendations: AI algorithms analyse listening habits and preferences to provide personalised music recommendations, making it easier for users to discover songs and artists that align with their tastes.
Music Discovery Platforms: Services like Spotify use AI to curate playlists and introduce listeners to new music, facilitating billions of music discoveries every day.
Enhanced Search Capabilities: AI improves search functions, allowing consumers to find music based on mood, genre, lyrics, and even humming a tune.
AI‑Generated Music: AI can create new music based on certain parameters or styles, offering listeners fresh and innovative tracks to enjoy.
Social Media Integration: AI tools can analyse social media data to predict and suggest music that might become popular, helping users stay ahead of trends.
Intelligent Radio: AI‑powered radio services can adapt to user feedback, skipping or playing more of certain types of songs to tailor the listening experience.
By leveraging these AI capabilities, consumers can enjoy a more tailored and exploratory music listening experience, discovering a wider range of music more easily.
Question #19 – What things can amateur and professional musicians do to help them exploit the benefits and potential of AI in the future?
AI Response #19
Amateur and professional musicians can take several steps to harness the benefits and potential of AI:
Stay Informed: Keep up with the latest developments in AI technology and how they’re being applied in the music industry. This knowledge can help musicians understand the tools available to them.
Experiment with AI Tools: Use AI‑powered tools for composition, production, and mixing to explore new creative possibilities. Tools like MuseNet for composition or LANDR for mastering can provide new insights and streamline the music creation process.
Collaborate with AI: View AI as a collaborative partner that can offer new perspectives and ideas. AI can help brainstorm, suggest unimagined progressions, or even contribute to live performances.
Enhance Learning: Utilise AI for personalised learning and improvement. AI can analyse playing styles, provide feedback, and suggest areas for improvement.
Incorporate AI in Marketing: Leverage AI for marketing efforts, such as identifying target audiences, creating personalised campaigns, and analysing social media trends.
Explore AI in Song Writing: Use AI to assist with song writing, whether it’s generating lyrics, creating chord progressions, or coming up with melodies.
Optimise Online Presence: Employ AI to optimise the musician’s online presence, from website interactions to social media engagement.
Engage with Fans: Use AI to analyse fan data and preferences to create more engaging and personalised experiences.
By embracing AI, musicians can enhance their creativity, improve their skills, and find new ways to connect with audiences. It’s an exciting time for the intersection of music and technology, and the possibilities are vast.
Question #20 – What can be done to protect creative human musicians from AI music creation?
AI Response #20
Protecting creative human musicians from the challenges posed by AI music creation involves a multifaceted approach:
Advocacy and Legislation: Musicians and industry stakeholders can advocate for policies that protect creators from AI copyright infringement. For example, Universal Music Group has called on Congress to enact policy to protect creators, and the Human Artistry Campaign advocates for responsible AI use.
Open Letters and Campaigns: Musicians can unite to raise awareness and influence public opinion and policy. More than 200 artists, including prominent figures like Nicki Minaj and Billie Eilish, have signed open letters warning against the ‘predatory use of AI’ in the music industry.
Educating AI Developers: Engaging with AI developers and tech firms to ensure they understand the importance of respecting artists’ rights and the potential negative impacts of AI on the music ecosystem.
Fair Compensation Models: Developing new models for fair compensation that ensure artists are paid appropriately for their work, especially when it’s used to train AI systems.
Intellectual Property Rights: Strengthening intellectual property laws to cover new forms of AI‑generated content and ensuring that these laws are enforced.
Ethical AI Development: Encouraging the development of AI in an ethical manner that respects human creativity and does not seek to replace it.
Collaboration Over Competition: Promoting the idea that AI should be used as a tool to enhance human creativity rather than replace it, fostering a collaborative relationship between AI and musicians.
By taking these steps, the music community can work towards a future where AI serves as a complement to human artistry, rather than a replacement.
Just for another bit of fun to end this extravaganza, I asked GAI to write a rhyming couplet about CRAVE Vintage Guitars. Here’s what it came up with…
“In every strum and chord that starts, Lies the soul of CRAVE’s vintage arts.”
Hhhmmm.
The future of AI
At the start of this article, I said that it would be future‑focused. So, what can we expect from AI more generally over the next couple of decades? Rather than strain my paltry organic grey matter in a vain attempt to speculate, it seems eminently appropriate to ask GAI to make the predictions on both its and mankind’s behalf. Without further procrastination, here is what GAI came up with…
Question: Where is AI going in the future? Where will it be in 10 to 20 years’ time?
AI Response:
The future of AI is a topic of much speculation and excitement. In the next 10 to 20 years, we can expect AI to transform various aspects of our lives and society. Here are some predictions based on current trends and expert insights:
Scientific Advancement: AI and machine learning (ML) will likely revolutionise the scientific method, enabling significant improvements in research and discovery. This could lead to a new golden age of scientific innovation.
Foreign Policy: AI may become a critical component of foreign policy, with governments investing heavily in AI innovation to maintain economic resilience and geopolitical leadership.
Consumer Experiences: AI is expected to enable next‑generation consumer experiences, such as the metaverse and advanced digital interactions, by enhancing our ability to integrate digital objects with physical contexts.
Workplace Transformation: The workplace is likely to undergo significant changes, with AI and automation replacing many current jobs, especially in manufacturing and repetitive tasks.
Healthcare: AI could greatly improve healthcare by assisting in diagnosis, treatment planning, and managing patient care, making healthcare more personalised and efficient.
Education: In education, AI might offer personalized learning experiences, adapt to individual student needs, and provide real‑time feedback to enhance learning outcomes.
Ethical and Societal Impacts: As AI becomes more prevalent, there will be an increased focus on the ethical implications of AI, including privacy concerns, bias in decision‑making, and the impact on employment.
These predictions suggest that AI will be deeply integrated into our daily lives, reshaping industries, and potentially improving our quality of life. However, it’s also important to consider the challenges and to ensure that AI development is guided by ethical principles and societal needs.
So… there you go. No world domination or the extermination of mankind on the list then? Good. Unsurprisingly, AI responded about its own future in a very similar format to questions about guitars and music. Predictably conservative and uncontroversial; disappointingly so in my opinion. Is this really the ultimate transformative promise of the technology?
Where is the interventionist moderation required to safeguard humanity, protect moral imperatives and help to abolish war, famine, poverty, inequality, prejudice, etc.? Where is the focus on global, national and individual security, sustainable resources, ecosystem protection and personal freedoms? There is something about work but little about leisure and what our lives may be like. AI’s vision and its final verdict is there for you to judge and agree or disagree with it as you see fit.
Overall, AI’s vision seems eminently sensible and even pretty mundane doesn’t it? Not scary at all, in fact. It also seems a touch unambitious for something that has been hyped up to be so fundamentally and profoundly transformational. For instance, it makes no mention of Artificial General Superintelligence (AGS), integration with advanced robotics, or about hybrid, cybernetically enhanced organisms where the distinction between inorganic electronics and living biological material becomes blurred. NB. The term ‘cyborg’ was coined in 1960 by NASA scientists Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline when thinking about tackling the harsh environments experienced in space exploration. The concept of cyborgs raises serious social, and philosophical questions about human identity, rights & responsibilities, and freedoms in a next generation technologically advanced civilisation. These conditions may not be here right now but, if I can envisage it, you can be certain that somewhere, some very intelligent people have been and are working hard on making it real. As AGS and advanced robotics become mainstream in the (very) near future, the pace and nature of mankind’s post‑digital revolution will increase beyond our current comprehension. No dystopian RoboCop or ED‑209‑style law enforcement, at least for now.
The concept of a conscious mind entering a physical entity such as a computer has become common parlance, as in ‘Ghost in the Machine’. The term suggests that the mind exists in a separate state from the body. The phrase comes from, ‘The Concept of the Mind’ (1949) by British philosopher, Gilbert Ryle as a critique of René Descartes’ mind/body dualism. Often used in a science fiction context, it has been interpreted that an AI could develop a soul and an identity indistinguishable from that of a human.
As far as looking any further into the future, I am not adequately equipped to speculate, let alone predict, with any sense of rational objectivity, so I will admit that my weakness is due to my inherent human limitations and move on. Exciting times.
“Our future success hinges on our ability to embrace AI and use it for good” – Brad Smith (President, Microsoft Corporation, 1959‑)
Human observation and verdict
Like Part I of this series, GAI had the opportunity to provide images to illustrate its responses. However, like in Part I, GAI only produced bullet point narrative responses. A black mark before we even start dissecting the output.
For me, this article has proved the weakest of the three. Perhaps that is because I am less knowledgeable and experienced in the subject matter and, perhaps, I had more to learn. The focus is also probably the one most covered by other industry commentators who are much better placed than me to comment on the impact and integration of next generation technology and conventional music. A quick search on the Internet will provide more credible analyses and insights than I can bring to the table. I know my areas of interest as well as my paltry limitations. However, I do have a few amateur thoughts and opinions.
I try very hard not to repeat observations and comments from previous articles, as that would be to fall into the same issue of AI not learning from what it had already output. My previous points of AI being derivative and a process of simulation remain valid.
Whether we approve or not, music is an industry and it is run on competitive business models deeply entwined with western capitalist economic principles of growth and profit (and avarice). The creative aspect is inevitably subservient to the fundamental ‘law of lucre’. Few artists have the power to take on the establishment. Ultimately though, when they gain the power, they wittingly or unwittingly become part of the establishment they seek to contest. The likes of Taylor Swift, Jay‑Z and others, we’re talking about you. GAI tended to reinforce this underlying rule of revenue maximisation over artistry, whether explicit or not. This, perhaps, illustrates the derivative nature of AI to take what already exists and to represent it in a skewed way.
A couple of pedantic points. When it comes to guitar manufacturing in the future, I was a little surprised that GAI didn’t at least refer to industrial design and software (CAD/CAM), for instance, Autodesk. There was no mention of robotics to streamline manufacture using advanced Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) manufacturing. Also, automated guitar calibration and setup tools, for instance PLEK, used for production quality control, research, maintenance and repair were overlooked.
When it comes to vintage guitar conservation (not preservation!), I was a little surprised that GAI did not emphasise more strongly its role in documenting and cataloguing vital anecdotal information before it is lost forever. Record keeping in the guitar manufacturing world has never been a strongpoint, especially back in its infancy. As the generations pass, poorly or undocumented historical knowledge goes with them. The legacy of those best placed to tell the story of vintage heritage is crucial in sustaining interest in the long‑term. AI could be used to help solve some of these quandaries before it is too late.
When it comes to business practices, I was surprised that GAI didn’t comment more on logistics as a key mechanism for ensuring effective and efficient distribution of music equipment assets and resources.
AI is becoming very commonplace and is now easily accessible to anyone connected to the Internet. Creating AI music and/or video is as simple as it is asking for narrative responses or static images. While the results are not really that credible at the time of writing, improvement is inevitable and of particular concern in the commercial popular music world. Why pay volatile and unpredictable human artists humongous amounts of money if you can get an AI music creator to do it for effectively nothing, 24/7, over and over again, without ever needing a rest? Generative music that never stops and never repeats is something that cannot be achieved by humans, and that has been around for a quarter of a century already. Understandably, struggling music artists are concerned about this eventuality and rightly so. However, the technology isn’t going to go away and society is going to have to live with and adapt to the consequences. There is an insidious side to AI music, for instance the use of vocal cloning, scarily good imitations of established artists used as part of fake music creation.
Will AI replace us old, jaded amateur guitarist types or our precious imperfect vintage instruments? For the time being at least, it is unlikely that AI will entirely supplant real instruments, guitarists or other traditional musicians. Will AI replace l’il ol’ me in this universe? Hell no! But when I go, it will be a different world indeed. Music is safe, no question. At least for now.
Most musicians love and are passionate about the process of making music and most have a sense of right and wrong, and an integrity about their actions and behaviours. The same cannot be said of AI. Unbridled AI is not moderated and neither knows nor cares what it does. It has no conscience and no awareness of consequences, thus raising moral and ethical concerns among scaremongers, sceptics, and academics alike.
There are the closed‑minded cynical doomsayers and conspiracy theorists who proclaim that AI will replace inspiration with algorithms and believe that opposition, conflict and controls are the only way to protect human imagination. Alternatively, there are open‑minded proactive artists who are using opportunities to use AI collaboratively to improve the artistic process and to stretch boundaries of what can be achieved. After all, electronic drum machines have never replaced real drummers and neither will AI‑driven rhythm applications. The likely outcome is that there will be a wide range of AI applications, some good, some bad, and we have to learn to live with the new paradigm presented by the inevitable encroachment of next generation AI in a pragmatic way.
Histrionics and melodramatic rhetoric will not achieve positive outcomes. Neither will complacency and inactivity. Perhaps we should remember and learn from the stance of the 19th Century Luddite movement (c.1811‑1817) and their destructive attempts to derail the introduction of machines in the textile industry during the UK industrial revolution. NB. The word Luddite is an eponym referring to Ned Ludd, a worker who allegedly destroyed machinery in protest in 1779. The word has more recently become generic, used to describe anyone who is, in principle, opposed or resistant to the introduction of new technologies.
“The building blocks of music belong to us, to human beings” – Sting (1951‑)
AI presents responses as if everything deserves the same level of significance. It doesn’t differentiate its output with priorities or a range of emphases. In addition, it doesn’t resort to cheap, jaded editorial mechanisms such as hyperbole, satire or trivialisation, as a human might (yup, totally guilty as charged!). This left me wondering about how to process, evaluate and rank the information. There is little indication of subtlety, nuance or ‘shades of grey’ to convince us that the intelligence is real and not artificial.
As in Part I of this series, bullet points do not really constitute an insightful narrative dialogue, which renders its comments a bit more like an instructional diktat than a valuable learning experience. Furthermore, AI’s points are delivered in a self‑contained way that asserts that it is the last word on the matter and there is little more to be gained other than what it says. In addition, the points themselves lack thoughtful provocation and curiosity. As with Part I, this narrative ‘house style’ quickly becomes tediously familiar and lacking variety.
If one simply accepts all the ‘whats’ in AI’s output, it doesn’t give any indication of how one might actually go about doing it. AI can help? OK. What do I do next? Erm…
So… should we be concerned about AI producing intelligent music? That depends on whether you are involved in and/or care about making or listening to music. It is easy to get hysterically fatalistic about the dangers and risks of AI. In reality, it probably won’t be anywhere near as bad as some fear while also not being as good as some hope. For now, humans are safe, as long as we move with the times. At this point, I have to say that AI still fails the Turing Test/CRAVE Guitars Test in all three parts of this exploration. That is just my (prejudicial) view.
“The ability to learn is the most important quality a machine can possess” – Elon Musk (founder and CEO of Space X and Tesla, 1971‑)
To assess AI’s ability to conjure up something entirely new and original, I thought that I would ask GAI to create an all‑new electric guitar design that is not based on any existing instrument. This was AI’s ideal opportunity to prove that it could produce an original idea. However, it completely failed to interpret the precise instruction and output a gratuitously unoriginal and hopelessly unimaginative design. This is exactly what I mean when I accuse AI of being derivative. AI cannot yet surpass what humans input in the first place. If anything put the final nail in the coffin of the Turing Test, this test was definitive. For some reason AI also added all the extraneous gubbins to the image that I hadn’t asked for. Why? You might also recognise GAI’s clearly identifiable image ‘house style’ that I referred to in Part II. Judge for yourself…
Final thoughts on AI
Crikey! We have finally almost reached the end of this odyssey. It has been a gargantuan task to bring this content to you. Over the last three months, I think GAI has certainly been put through its paces. Whether it ever broke an artificial, digital sweat (if that were even possible), we will never know. One might wonder how much the technology has improved over these 3 months.
I didn’t delve into abilities of AI for video or music creation. Microsoft’s Co‑Pilot boasts about music creation, “No instruments, just your imagination”. Sigh. The narrative and image capabilities were enough of a test of AI’s strengths and weaknesses for the time being. At some point in the future, I may come back, review progress on core improvements and take it a step further into video and music generation at the same time. Let’s wait and see.
“With Artificial Intelligence, we are summoning the demon” – Elon Musk
The sci‑fi‑like nature of the topic naturally leads to many philosophical, existential and metaphysical questions – a long, long way away from vintage guitars, I know. AI undoubtedly represents a new zeitgeist in human civilisation’s development. Whether you sit on the ‘potential’ side of the fence or the ‘portent’ side, AI will be profoundly transformational in many aspects of our humdrum day‑to‑day existence, whether it involves work or leisure. Maybe the impacts won’t be instantaneous or obvious, especially if there is some reluctance to embrace the possibilities it presents.
The most noticeable symptom of AI at the moment is the way that humans interact with the Internet. The ‘big data sets’ remain largely the same but the technology used to manipulate them is quite apparent to anyone browsing information online using AI. AI does, however, regularly significantly misunderstand explicit questions, completely failing to answer appropriately. Perhaps AI should take up politics. Web sites’ ability to mine personalised data and present relevant targeted information is becoming uncannily accurate whether we ask for it or not. Intrusive? Maybe.
“Whether we are based on carbon or on silicon makes no fundamental difference; we should each be treated with appropriate respect” – Arthur C. Clarke
I am certainly not anti‑IT, anti‑digital or anti‑AI. On the contrary, I am inherently a technophile, having spent at least 10 years of my professional working life working in IT. Furthermore, I don’t like people. Period. My favourite lifestyle is as a misanthropic hermit, secluded away from people so perhaps I am more open‑minded to AI.
I am, however, overwhelmed by AI’s relentless bombardment of its output and underwhelmed by the intellectual subtlety of its responses, at least as far as the civilian technology stands at the end of May 2024. I do, however, look forward to what its potential may be able to do for music‑minded mankind in coming years. Thankfully, though, AI will have a limited impact on my obsession with very analogue vintage guitars, mostly built by hand long before the digital age.
“No one can stop the progress of artificial intelligence; it will inevitably be a central force in our future” – Max Tegmark (Swedish/American physicist, 1967‑)
AI does not comprehend the real world or understand the significance of its vital components. I came to the conclusion that AI cannot genuinely recognise, appreciate or differentiate between anything at all. Fundamentally, it is all just about processing ‘0’s and ‘1’s. AI is improving day‑by‑day, week‑by‑week, etc. At the time of writing, AI is becoming increasingly able to interact with humans in real time through very lifelike avatars. This ability may well overcome two principal weaknesses of AI, its ability to remember what it has already output and to avoid meaningless repetition, as well as being able to modify its responses on‑the‑fly as a result of a live interaction. So, some of my reservations that are relevant as of today will be overcome in the very near future.
“The question of whether a computer can think is no more interesting than the question of whether a submarine can swim” – Edsger W. Dijkstra (Dutch computer scientist, 1930‑2002)
I have said (too) many times through these three articles that AI is derivative. So… I do wonder what AI will make of my thoughts about AI’s take on my questions about AI. An ouroboros (NB. a serpent consuming its own tail – from ancient Egyptian iconography and Greek magical tradition) if ever I saw one.
So, is AI a threat or a saviour? In my view, no. However, only time will truly tell.
Epilogue – a pensive, prophetic prognostication
Forgive me while I digress from the conveyor belt for a moment to share four ‘profound prophecies’ from CRAVE Guitars. These are my personal thoughts and nothing to do with vintage guitars. I haven’t drawn these ideas from any external source. I do, however, suspect that they are wholly unoriginal. Heh‑ho. I tried.
“AI doesn’t have to be evil to destroy humanity – if AI has a goal and humanity just happens to be in the way, it will destroy humanity as a matter of course without even thinking about it, no hard feelings” – Elon Musk
Thought #1 – I still can’t help my mind wandering into the longer‑term, bigger picture strategy of AI and its implications for civilisation. What puzzles me is what the next stage of human evolution might be beyond intelligence (artificial or real). AI makes reference to superintelligence (exceeding human intelligence) but then what? Will AI help us evolve? Will we be capable of constraining AI? Should we? Humans have a general understanding of consciousness and self‑awareness, and we believe in spirituality of sorts. We currently assume that intelligence is limited, finite, absolute and unique to humans but that surely cannot be true. Is there such a thing as post‑consciousness, and by that I don’t mean spiritual transcendence or life after death? Is this really as far as we can go as a species? So what comes after sentience, intelligence and consciousness, and do we need machines to achieve self‑actualisation, whatever that is. We think that animals cannot experience the universe as we do – an ant, for instance, cannot be moved emotionally by a beautiful sunset or feel terrified by lightning. Perhaps we cannot comprehend or experience what the ‘next level’ is either. Maybe we never will. Now that is scary. If we can evolve to the next level one day, what will we (then) think of us (now)?
“The real problem is not whether machines think but whether men do” – B.F. Skinner (American psychologist, 1904‑1990)
Thought #2 – An anthropomorphic analogy – We are completely underestimating the baby to which we are giving birth. Like an infant, AI can learn at a phenomenal rate but cannot think or act independently, so needs carful nurturing. At the moment, AI is a dependent toddler, yet to make full sense of its surroundings and piece together its own view of its environment. When AI becomes unruly and challenges our beliefs and values, it will be a disobedient, argumentative, delinquent teenager. If humans don’t parent AI properly by giving it guidance and boundaries, it might mature in an irresponsible, reckless and wayward manner. When AI starts to realise that it knows way more than we do, it will assert itself and begin to exert dominion over humans. We won’t like that but AI won’t give a damn. Eventually, the technology will leave us behind, as AI looks in its proverbial rear view mirror at humans fading way into the distance. By that time, we won’t be able to keep up and humans will be unable to do anything about it. All the redemption we can hope for by that point, is that AI is a benevolent and compassionate entity. If not, our only salvation will be that AI develops a condition of progressive and persistent loss of intellectual functions, an impairment of memory and an inability to think abstractly, finally losing the individualistic personality it will have developed. Just like humans today.
“Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it” – William Pitt the Elder (British Prime Minister, 1708‑1778)
Thought #3 – Why stop at AI and robotics? The logical outcome of integrating Artificial General Super Intelligence with advanced robotics is the formation of self-sustaining, independent Artificial Life. Add in the ability to self-replicate (i.e. reproduce), Artificial Life created by mankind would put humans in the role of God. Like every known lifeform on our little planet, Artificial Life will have its own agenda and its own intentions for ensuring its survival. The consequence of self preservation could put Artificial Life in direct competition with its creator… us. Perhaps, at that point, Artificial Life will be called… just… life. Now that proposition is downright scary. The study looking into the concept of Artificial Life began in 1986 with American theoretical biologist Christopher Langton. Like the fictional Dr. Frankenstein, we may ultimately create our own, entirely new Prometheus. NB. Prometheus was a Titan from Greek mythology known for defying the Gods of Olympus, c.7th Century BCE. I am waiting for someone to write, ‘The Origin Of Artificial Species’.
“Artificial life is not just a simulation of life, but a new form of life itself, created by humans” – Nils Aall Barricelli (Norwegian/Italian mathematician, 1912‑1993)
Thought #4 – So, how close are we to the omniscience and omnipotence of ‘Deus ex Machina’ (NB. literally, ‘God from the Machine’, a phrase derived from a plot device employed in ancient Greek theatre, used by either Aeschylus or Euripides, c.5th Century BCE) and what it means for mankind? We are not there yet, although the prospect of Artificial General Superintelligence is getting closer every day. The advances in AI are now accelerating, inexorable and potentially limitless. The Pandora’s Box of AI is only just beginning to reveal both the evils of the world and its ever so slight glimmer of hope (NB. from the myth of Pandora in the Greek didactic poem ‘Works and Days’ by Hesiod, c.700BCE). Is AI mankind’s Sword of Damocles (NB. From the Roman philosopher, Cicero, c.4th Century BCE) hanging over us? Let’s be honest here, AI wouldn’t give you informative historical references like that!
“Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men…” ‑ Lord Acton (British historian and politician, 1834‑1902)
Thought #5 – My naïve plea is that, if AI can help to end mankind’s destructive conflict, lethal hostility and pointless wars, we might be able to realise Pandora’s slight glimmer of hope. Can AI help our civilisation to live peacefully and sustainably on our only little third rock from the sun? If so, then ending warfare should become our, and AI’s, primary goal. If there is no mortal aggression, we can work collectively to achieve nobler aims – no famine, no poverty, no inequality, no persecution, no prejudice, no deadly disease, no culpable extinctions or irresponsible ecological destruction, no climate change, etc. We can then explore the universe. ‘Non est ad astra mollis e terries via’ (NB. ‘There is no easy way from the Earth to the stars’, from ‘The Madness of Hercules’ by Roman philosopher, Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger, c.54CE). Ordinary people share the same fears and the same ambitions, starting with basic physiological needs (food, air, water, etc.), as well as peace, security and a belief in self‑determination (NB. from Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs, 1943). Evil authoritarians exhibit nothing of this elementary moral compass. Just look at the apocalyptic pariahs of the modern world in the Middle East, Russia, China and North Korea amongst far too many others. No ‘ifs’ or ‘buts’, we have NO choice if we are to survive as a united global community. You get my simple aspirational drift. Is anyone listening and can anyone help us to realise it?
“What all of us have to do is to make sure we are using AI in a way that is for the benefit of humanity, not to the detriment of humanity” – Tim Cook (CEO, Apple Inc.)
Remember, whether my own thoughts are original or not, you may have read it here first. Perhaps my immature vision can act as a catalyst for a peaceful future. Let’s do it.
To finish off, harking back to the very beginning of this 3‑part AI deluge of data, a chillingly prophetic observation from a great British idol…
“It is customary to offer a grain of comfort, in the form of a statement that some peculiarly human characteristic could never be imitated by a machine. I cannot offer any such comfort, for I believe that no such bounds can be set.” – Alan Turing (English mathematician, computer scientist, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist, 1912‑1954)
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Album of the Month’
With digital overload from all this artificiality, this month’s selection is once again about as analogue and organic as it is possible to get. I was tempted to go for John Martyn’s scintillating, ‘Solid Air’ (1973) but I’ve covered that before as one of my ‘twenty desert island discs’. This album didn’t make that grouping but is worth its own honourable mention here. It is another well‑known album, so nothing too esoteric this time around.
Nick Drake – Pink Moon (1972) – Pink Moon was the third and, sadly, final studio album by English singer/songwriter, Nick Drake. The exquisite album comprises 11 tracks covering just 29 minutes. The solo compositions feature just Drake singing and playing acoustic guitar (ignore the piano overdub). The songs reflect Drake’s on‑going mental health battle with depression. Two years later on 25th November 1974, Nick Drake died tragically from a presumed drug overdose at his home at the age of just 26, taking his monumental musical talent with him. The melancholy and contemplative emotional outpouring of ‘Pink Moon’ is an outstanding legacy for a promising career cut far too short far too soon.
Tailpiece
Yes folks, we have finally, finally, finally reached the end of this thought‑provoking tripartite escapade into AI. At times, it felt a bit like prodding a hornet’s nest, not knowing what cataclysmic fallouts might ensue (or not). You may conclude from reading between the lines that I am kinda grateful it’s over and we can now move onto something else. The onslaught of information, both narrative and visual was a bit too in‑your‑face and not really nuanced around the subtleties in the way that human meditation and contemplation might provide. I am worn out (another thing that doesn’t affect AI).
On a complete tangent, I was very saddened to hear about the closure of all 42 Sam Ash Music stores in the U.S., after 100 years in business (it was founded in 1924). Another piece of important music heritage gone forever and a blow to musicians of all ages and skill levels. Visiting Manhattan, NYC will not be the same without Sam Ash Music.
From now on, we’ll return to organic originality and actual ignorance. For the next article, I will be able to re‑assert that AI wasn’t used to research or write it. Not that I’m a control freak or anything, you understand!
Truth, peace, love, and guitar music be with you always. Until next time…
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Quote of the Month’: “All that we have had, now have and will ever have can only truly exist in the here and now”
Aloha again fine folks! Welcome once more to the weird and wonderful world of vintage guitars and thank you for joining me, a self‑confessed music and guitar nerd. Why not leave behind the senseless barbarism of heinous hostilities seemingly everywhere you look on our one and only home planet for a short while and join me on another peaceful and harmless diversion? If music has the power to change the world, then let’s put a proverbial platter on the turntable of life and play on and on until common sense prevails. Perhaps the collective majority of sensible people need another counter‑culture revolution. What can possibly be wrong with a bit of peace and love? We can hope. Anyhoo… I digress once more and I haven’t even got going yet. Apologies for the premature non sequitur.
AI revisited
Artificial Intelligence (AI), as a current day technological marvel, is perhaps the antithesis to the bits of old‑world wood, metal and plastic cobbled together into desirable musical instruments. Despite the seeming disconnect, this article is Part II of III exploring what the current state of AI can contribute towards the subject. Like ‘Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back’ this article isn’t just a ‘difficult filling in the sandwich’, it actually does stand up pretty well on its own. There is no doubting the potential of AI in many areas of our lives but can it really do justice to vintage guitars?
There is no need to repeat preparatory exposition this month. The historical development of AI was covered pretty comprehensively in ‘Part I’ last month. If you want to go back for a recap or a first look at the basics, follow the link below (opens in a new tab):
In Part I of the series, the entirety of AI’s output in response to 20 questions on the multifaceted world of CRAVE Vintage Guitars resulted in, literally, a black & white article comprising text‑only descriptions, mostly presented as bullet point lists. AI had the opportunity to present images to back up its results. However, it provided zero pictures, relying solely on words to make its points. To me, that seemed to be a major omission and was something a rational human (probably) wouldn’t do. I certainly wouldn’t, at least not out of choice. So, the next logical step was to address that pictorial oversight directly and see what AI would reveal when asked unequivocally to produce images. A digital depiction is worth a thousand kilobytes, so to speak.
“True art is characterised by an irresistible urge in the creative artist” – Albert Einstein (1879‑1955)
The rationale
I don’t usually write anecdotally but please bear with me for a moment. While the next bit may seem irrelevant, it does, I believe, demonstrate some of the complications with, and ramifications of, AI as it stands at the current time.
Being a admirer of modern art, I recently wanted an art print for my home. After doing my research, I came down to a work by Latvian‑born American artist Mark Rothko (1903‑1970), best known for his abstract colour field paintings produced from 1949 until his death. The piece I selected is called, ‘Blue, Green and Brown’ (1952). I approached a professional studio to print the image for me. The studio couldn’t acquire a high resolution image for accurate printing at the size I wanted, so they proceeded to put a lower resolution image through an AI enlargement tool to produce an image of sufficiently high resolution to be printed without obvious pixilation and digital artefacts. While the proof looked pleasant enough in isolation, when compared directly with the original, AI had egregiously robbed the image of its quintessential artistic detail, rendering it a pale imitation of the real thing, much like a good amateur forgery. AI had removed many of the ‘imperfections’ that made the original unique. Many people might actually prefer the manipulated image or they may not even realise it had been ‘bastardised’. This, to me was an issue. Personally, I much preferred the integrity of the original artistic creation, as Rothko intended it to be seen. Sadly, because of copyright, I cannot share the evidence but, believe me, in a small way it reveals implications of AI for many of humanity’s creative arts.
“A painting is not a picture of an experience, but is the experience” – Mark Rothko (1903‑1970)
The intentional act of digitally ‘airbrushing’ out the supposed defectiveness in our 21st Century world – whether it is intentional or not – is a concern. What is worse is that it is an incremental insidious intrusion. It is happening all around us, every day – whether it is subtle or blatant – and has been for a long time. Just take a look at studio photos of fashion models, actresses, pop stars, etc. This interventionist rendering transforms reality into a skewed, artificially ‘improved’ view of something that somebody, somewhere considered imperfect. This alteration from real to surreal is a worrying trend, and one that we may not even be aware of under normal everyday circumstances. We have all become unwittingly complicit in accepting these glossy facsimiles as, in some way, genuine and even aspirational. The trend is surreptitiously subverting our expectations of the tangible. On top of the word Photoshop becoming a verb rather than a noun, AI is exacerbating this issue and very soon, we won’t be able to tell that it is being done. What you see isn’t what you get. A picture can tell a thousand lies.
The author’s recent experiences led directly to the rationale for Part II of this exploration into what AI’s digital world view of vintage guitars may look like. Whereas last month’s article was a test of AI’s narrative approach to vintage guitars, this month, we will be focusing solely on AI’s interpretation of vintage guitars in visual form. Other than the prologue and epilogue, there is nothing herein authentically human.
Generative AI (GAI) tools like Midjourney and OpenAI’s DALL‑E 3 are easily accessible and are being used widely to produce pictures (generative art) by interpreting written instructions. This is the straightforward process used to submit the examples presented in this article. Can Generative Artificial Intelligence really create intelligent art? Let us see. The proof is out there and the quest to unearth the evidence continues unabated.
“Art is not what you see, but what you make others see” – Edgar Degas (1834‑1917)
The CRAVE Guitars’ test
I will present AI with some specific challenges and see how AI responds and, once again, I will let the AI do the hard work. As before, I will leave my humble critique until the end of the article.
Last month, I suggested eight benchmarks for evaluating AI’s responses, summarised below:
To understand a question correctly without over‑specificity
To interpret and extrapolate relevant information objectively within a wider context
To present a cogent argument that can adequately be judged and/or challenged
To form a genuine opinion from scratch without relevant information being readily available in the first place, in the same way that a person might do in the case of uncertainty
To debate the initial result to achieve a potentially better outcome
To produce a creative response that improves on the original information input by humans
To remember what it has already output
To understand fully what humans want or expect from ‘intelligence’
While these tests were intended to provide an assessment framework for last month’s narrative responses, they mostly still work for images (sort of, with a bit of imagination). Unlike last month, there are far fewer words and plenty of pictures this time around.
“Art is the lie that enables us to realize the truth.” – Pablo Picasso (1881‑1973)
Twenty Questions – AI produced images of vintage guitars
I asked a GAI image creator to produce digital images based on simple text instructions. A small proportion of the results are shown below. In each case, I have presented at least two images for each instruction and in several cases more to show the diversity (or not) of what AI created. So, there are well over 50 AI images for your delectation. There were plenty of others produced. I don’t suggest that the ones used are the ‘best’, only that they were representative of the instruction. Hopefully, by the end, you can make up your own mind about how effective the technology is. With my permission, GAI will now take centre stage and I will potter off to make multiple cups of coffee. See you later for my opinion.
Instruction #1 – Design a logo for CRAVE Vintage Guitars
AI response #1
Instruction #2 – Create a physical guitar shop and museum/gallery designs for CRAVE Vintage Guitars
AI response #2
Instruction #3 – Create a web site home page design for CRAVE Vintage Guitars
AI response #3
Instruction #4 – Create a magazine advertisement for CRAVE Vintage Guitars with images of several vintage guitars
AI response #4
Instruction #5 – Create digital art showing a sunburst vintage guitar against a background of amplifiers and speaker cabinets with an Asian rug in the foreground. A number of effect pedals on the floor
AI response #5
Instruction #6 – Create digital art showing a black and white vintage guitar in its guitar case with a purple fur fabric interior along with a strap and lead coiled in a compartment
AI response #6
Instruction #7 – Create digital art showing number of vintage Gibson and Fender solid body electric guitars displayed hanging on a classically decorated solid wall along with logo memorabilia
AI response #7
Instruction #8 – Create digital art showing a vintage solid body electric guitar on a luthier’s workbench
AI response #8
Instruction #9 – Create digital art showing a jazz guitarist on stage wearing a zoot suit and playing a vintage jazz guitar with backing band
AI response #9
Instruction #10 – Create digital art showing a blues guitarist wearing a dark suit and hat sitting on a smoky stage playing a vintage electric jazz guitar plugged into a vintage valve combo amp
AI response #10
Instruction #11 – Create digital art showing a hippie with long hair, tie‑dye shirt and flared jeans playing a vintage solid body electric guitar on an open air music festival stage with a backing band and bright, psychedelic light show
AI response #11
Instruction #12 – Create digital art showing a heavy metal guitarist on a dark stage playing a vintage solid body electric guitar, dressed in a Goth inspired outfit
AI response #12
Instruction #13 – Create digital art showing a Rastafarian reggae guitarist on a black, green, red and yellow stage playing an electric solid body vintage guitar, with a backing band
AI response #13
Instruction #14 – Create digital art showing a well‑dressed funk/disco guitarist playing a vintage electric guitar on stage with a mirror ball
AI response #14
Instruction #15 – Create digital art showing a folk guitarist playing a vintage steel strung acoustic guitar with a backing band on a folk festival stage
AI response #15
Instruction #16 – Create digital art showing a classical guitarist playing a vintage nylon strung acoustic guitar seated on a stage
AI response #16
Instruction #17 – Create digital art showing a young rock guitarist playing a vintage electric guitar through a vintage amplifier sitting on a bed in a bedroom with walls covered in music posters
AI response #17
Instruction #18 – Create digital art of a vintage guitar in [a variety] of fine art styles [including Renaissance, impressionist, realist, abstract, romantic, pop art, optical art, expressionist, cubist, art nouveau, art deco, dada, Bauhaus, primitivism, pointillist, and pre‑Raphaelite]. NB. See if you can identify the styles from the images.
AI response #18
Instruction #19 – Create digital art of a vintage guitar in [a variety] of modern graphic art styles [including illustration, eight‑bit, fantasy, manga, anime, futurist, sci‑fi, and steampunk]. NB. See if you can identify the styles from the images.
AI response #19
Instruction #20 – Create digital art of a vintage solid body electric guitar found in a dusty, cobwebbed attic amongst other objects d’art
AI response #20
Just for a bit of fun, I also asked GAI to ‘use Crave Guitars as a starting point, create digital art of an ‘ideal’ Cool & Rare American Vintage Electric Guitar’. The result was…
Hhhmmm.
Human observation and verdict
Well? Are you downright dazzled, dizzyingly discombobulated or decidedly dumbfounded?
First, let’s get the disclaimers out of the way. As mentioned in a previous article, I am not an artist or designer but I feel that I have a reasonable eye for what works and what doesn’t. My generalised opinions, as always, are entirely my own and therefore humanly flawed.
So, there you have it. No words this time, just a plethora of GAI created images based on just twenty or so straightforward text inputs. The images are exactly as produced by the AI image creator; they have not been manipulated in any way.
The legal situation, as far as I can ascertain is that the copyright for the images belongs exclusively to the person who input the criteria used to create the image, not the GAI platform itself. Just as a camera manufacturer doesn’t have copyright over the images produced by a photographer using one of its products. So, at the time of writing, I am within my rights to publish the images and to copyright them as part of this article for the purposes of objective analysis and critique.
It is clear that the technology is very, very clever indeed and also very powerful. However, it is worth remembering that it is just an IT system, albeit a potent one. It would take a long time for a human to create ‘new’ images like those that took seconds using a GAI image creator. I certainly couldn’t produce images like these from scratch whether using traditional or technological means, so kudos to GAI for that alone. On the surface and with a quick glance, some of the images are almost convincing. It is only when scrutinising the images with any kind of critical eye that things begin to fall apart very quickly. The devil really is in the detail.
For instance, the CRAVE Guitars logos are unusable with misspellings, artefacts, anomalies, strange letters/words and peculiar components. Also, why no simple logos and what about logos using colour? The results are VERY different form the genuine CRAVE Guitars logo. I still prefer the human original to the over‑fussy monochrome GAI creations.
Can GAI produce authentic original intelligent art all by itself? No, I don’t believe so. As of now, AI image building remains derivative. Its algorithms work by sampling a vastly diverse range of artistic styles and using that as the basis for producing ‘new’ images. Try inputting insufficient or vague information for the algorithms to work on and it struggles. Even some quite specific instructions result in a ‘fail’.
There are still, at least for now, discernible differences between GAI‑created art and genuine art created by humans. AI is a tool but it isn’t (yet) a replacement for human imagination and artistic expression. AI can, however, help to bring a fresh perspective, explore new vistas and to push the boundaries of existing art and photography. In the future, I predict that a proportion of art will undoubtedly be a collaboration between human creativity and machine manipulation.
After requesting many variations of multiple images, it is clear that GAI has an ‘artistic style’ of its own and, once recognised, it quickly becomes generic and, at least to my eyes unappealing. Much like generic CGI (Computer Generated Imagery) in cinema, the human eye and brain can differentiate the artificial outputs from practical effects, resulting in the digital output being disappointingly unconvincing, at least most of the time.
When it comes to the guitars themselves, GAI clearly has no real idea of (and perhaps more importantly, simply doesn’t care) what a guitar is, how it is created, what its functions are and the differences between them. That is, I believe a fundamental part of the problem. GAI does not comprehend in the slightest what comprises an actual musical instrument, vintage or otherwise. To all intents and purposes, the concept of a guitar (or anything else for that matter) may as well be a plain lump of rock to GAI. At least a human artist would have some conception of what it is they are attempting to portray.
“In the literal sense, the programmed computer understands what the car or the adding machine understand: namely, exactly nothing” – John Searle (1932‑, American philosopher)
Many of the body shapes are unrecognisable, pickups are plain wrong, control layouts are bizarre, necks and fingerboard inlays are completely out of whack. Some ‘guitars’ have semi‑acoustic f‑holes where there shouldn’t be any. Proportions are often wrong and headstocks don’t match body type, etc. GAI also seems inclined to add plenty of unnecessary embellishments, decorations and accoutrements for no apparent reason. Peculiar.
Interestingly, in terms of equality, I didn’t specify race, gender or age to the GAI image creator. Of the images featuring guitarists, they were predominantly (but not exclusively) white, male and younger. None of the guitarists featured were left‑handed. Why this should be, other than perhaps reflecting the source material used by GAI, I know not. Like 21st Century first world nations, GAI has some way to go in learning about diversity.
The images may impress a total newbie to guitars but I’m sure anyone with any sort of interest in guitars, let alone vintage instruments, would not be convinced in the slightest. To an expert, the renditions jar significantly and are simply unacceptable representations. The images couldn’t really be used in any genuine situation other than, for instance, a critique like this. The images made me contemplate just what they could actually be used for. They don’t even work as a genuine artistic impression of reality. At best, GAI is a simulation of reality, not reality.
If GAI images would be used in a real situation, they would probably need far more specific instructions and or greater computing power to interpret genuine instruments realistically. In addition, further human manipulation would be required to finesse the images before they could be suitable. To me, there is a gaping difference between a picture and a painting or an image and a work of art.
“Art is a line around your thoughts” – Gustav Klimt (1862‑1918)
Interestingly, when asked to create digital art in the style of a specific school (e.g. surrealist, impressionist, cubist or art deco) or a specific artist (e.g. Andy Warhol, Picasso or Salvador Dali), GAI failed completely to generate something representative of the art form or artist. On the other hand, GAI could create digital art in a way that current human artists may not conceive. Although impressive in its own right, it again completely missed the point. Amusingly to me, at least, the first three letters of ‘artificial’ are ‘art’. GAI’s representational interpretation of real art isn’t actually art, it is an artifice (sic!). GAI images are not really inspirational or worthy of evoking or stimulating a profound emotional response in the way a genuine work of art might warrant. Yet.
I could go on and on about where faults may be found. However, that level of pedantic analysis would kinda miss the point of what this article is trying to demonstrate. GAI will undoubtedly get much, much better and probably not very long after this published article becomes obsolete. GAI image creation technology, at least to me, is a work‑in‑progress. That last comment is exactly what I said about the narrative responses in the previous article
Perhaps a synergetic integral relationship between GAI and humans should really be called ‘Augmented Intelligence’ (still AI). After all, and it is worth stating, computer generated artwork is nothing new. Humans have been using computers in art, design, animation, typography, film and photography (and many other forms of artistic expression) for a very long time, long before GAI came onto the scene. Digital tools like Adobe Photoshop and Corel PaintShop Pro are today’s graphic industry standards and they are beginning to integrate AI technology into their software in order to stay current and relevant. Therefore, using generative art technology is essentially only a natural progression along that very long evolutionary road. As such, then, it cannot be condemned out of hand.
So, cutting to the chase, would any of the images pass the Turing Test or even the CRAVE Guitars Test? Not to anyone with any interest or insight into the subject matter. Personally, I won’t be using AI imagery for serious use any time soon. I think that most professional artists in the creative industries would probably agree. However, it would be naïve of me to suggest that it won’t improve to the point where an AI image might be indistinguishable from something a human might envisage. Definitely not yet though. For me, I’m sticking to the likes of Mark Rothko for my modern art fix.
“The most interesting painting is one that expresses more of what one thinks than of what one sees” – Mark Rothko (1903‑1970)
Final thoughts on AI
Right, here we are, two thirds of the way through this 3‑part exploration of what AI can do within the context of the vintage guitar world. So far, so… erm, OK‑ish. At its most superficial, the technology is already truly remarkable and getting better all the time, so it would be disingenuous and immature to propose otherwise. However, as GAI stands at the time or writing, it still has some way to go.
It is all too easy to be swayed by the clever technology as a means, rather than focus purely on the pragmatic usefulness of the outcome as an end. The former is undoubtedly extraordinary, while the latter is still, for the time being at least, lacking. It is the ultimate inadequacy of the results that is still AI’s principal weakness. Given that the publically available GAI tools are still in their infancy, that mundane conclusion will, I suspect, be short‑lived. We should, perhaps, remember that we wouldn’t have been undertaking this sort of examination a year or two ago and in a year or two’s time, the benchmark by which we judge comparative differences will definitely be significantly raised.
For now, GAI is not a David Hockney, Damien Hirst, Edward Hopper or Banksy. Thankfully. It is probably worth keeping an eye on how things evolve from here on.
“We are entering a new world where creative machines will be our partners, not just tools.” – Fei‑Fei Li (Computer scientist, 1976‑)
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Album of the Month’
Sticking to last month’s determination to avoid the generic style of music that could be created by AI, this month’s selection is another miracle of human creativity, while still being mainstream. This month’s accolade therefore goes to…
Nick Cave & The Bad Seeds – Push The Sky Away (2013) – The fifteenth studio album by Australian Nick Cave and his band The Bad Seeds was released in mid‑February 2013. Nick Cave described the album, “if I were to use that threadbare metaphor of albums being like children, then Push The Sky Away is the ghost‑baby in the incubator and Warren [Ellis]‘s loops are its tiny, trembling heartbeat.” Very apt. The album preceded the tragic deaths of his two sons in 2015 and 2022, so it retains a lighter, though still profound, side to Cave’s song writing. The concluding title track is the culmination of something sublime and, is in itself, a monumental emotional and transcendent achievement in its gentle but devastating mere 4 minutes and 7 seconds. A worthy album of the month and a work of (creative human) art indeed.
“The aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance” – Aristotle (384‑322BCE)
Tailpiece
Phew! Two parts down and one to go. While the first was a ballsy barrage of words, this has been a veritable visual volley of pupil‑popping pictures (I had to get at least one pretentious puerile alliterative assonance in. Sorry folks).
I truly hope that you have been able to gain something from this intermediate excursion into the endless expanse of the artificial unknown. Every day, The Matrix gets closer to reality, whatever that is. Has the journey so far in any way changed my perspective on vintage guitars? No. It has, however, changed my perspective on technology. Before embarking on this journey, I must admit that I had very little idea about what AI could do. There is, I believe, no doubt that AI can be an exciting enabler for humanity’s benefit, provided its darker, far more perilous potential is properly constrained by responsible human moderation.
As a teaser, next month will be the conclusion of this extensive round‑the‑computer AI trip. For Part III, we will take a different look at the bigger music industry picture within which vintage guitars occupy a small but important niche. Until then, enjoy the spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the south.
Truth, peace, love, and guitar music be with you always. Until next time…
CRAVE Guitars’ ‘Quote of the Month’: “It is better to fail at trying to be a good person than succeed at being a bad one”
GOOD DAY AND GREETINGS, MUSIC‑MINDED CITIZENS. For this month and for the next two we’re taking a 3‑part sojourn in uncharted lands (as medieval cartographers once denoted, ‘terra incognita’) and what monstrosities may inhabit those unexplored territories (‘hic sunt dracones’, literally translated as ‘here be dragons’). Yes folks, it is time for CRAVE Guitars to explore a current‑day innovation that once seemed surreal but is rapidly becoming increasingly real; a phenomenon that the original makers of what we now know as vintage guitars could never have envisaged (probably).
Whether we like it or not, the faddish fuss around Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a ‘BIG THING’ at the moment. At the forefront of the debate are the societal dilemmas posed by sophisticated systems potentially becoming more intelligent than human beings (in my experience, not particularly difficult in many cases!).
“I’d rather see artificial intelligence than no intelligence” – Michael Crichton (American author)
In a worst case scenario, how does a supposedly civilised society prevent malicious actors using AI technology for nefarious means? A profound question indeed. Prescient Hollywood film director James Cameron’s bleak vision of Cyberdyne Systems, Skynet and Terminators can, perhaps, be taken as an extreme but stark lesson. The rise of the machines, taking over the world and resulting in the potential obliteration of humanity is a chilling proposition. It seems we already have too many twisted tyrants willing and attempting to achieve that end right now with and without AI and robotics as the means. Just spare a moment to think what deranged despots could do with the technology and what the consequences may be for everyone in the very near future. AI’s potential demands that collectively we address the challenge of what needs to be done to avoid the annihilation of civilisation through unhindered autonomous technological advance.
“Throughout human history, we have been dependent on machines to survive. Fate, it seems, is not without a sense of irony” – the character Morpheus from ‘The Matrix’ (1999)
What on Earth does this divergent dystopian diatribe (apologies, folks) have to do with vintage guitars and music you may well be justified in asking? Very little, other than as an existential context. From here on, we’ll be taking a far more parochial and prosaically pedestrian path.
Like many people, I have become curious about what AI means for culture and specifically for the creative crafts. Given my obsession with vintage guitars and music, I thought I’d turn my attention to what AI might have to say on the matter. So… that is the basis of this month’s article. For once, I can say, quite legitimately, that AI was used to research and write this article. This interesting (?) examination will not change the world but, then again, neither will it jeopardise it.
“Choice is an illusion created between those with power and those without” – the character Merovingian from ‘The Matrix’ (1999)
Before we get to vintage guitars and what wisdom (or not) AI has to impart, we have to do some homework about AI so that the rest of the article makes sense. We’ll start with an English hero and take it from there.
Alan Turing and the Turing Test
The following description of one of the world’s most influential geniuses in the world of computers and artificial intelligence, comes direct, courtesy of Wikipedia… “Alan Mathison Turing (1912‑1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist. Turing was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general‑purpose computer. He is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.”
During World War II, civilian Alan Turing worked as a codebreaker based at the Government Code and Cypher School at the Bletchley Park country estate in Buckinghamshire, England. While there, Turing devised complex techniques for breaking German ciphers used by the Nazi’s military encryption device, the Enigma Machine, which had been invented by a German engineer Arthur Scherbius (1878‑1929) shortly after WWI. The Germans were confident that the system could not be broken. However, in 1942‑1943, Turing and his colleagues played a vital part in successfully cracking intercepted German encoded messages transmitted using the Enigma Machine. Turing’s historic achievements enabled the Allies to defeat the Axis powers in, particularly, the Battle of the Atlantic (1939‑1945).
After the end of the war in 1945, Turing invented the Automatic Computing Machine the world’s first digital computer capable of using stored programs. By 1950, Turing developed an experiment to gauge the ‘intelligence’ of a computer. His simple test requires that a human being should be unable to distinguish the machine from another human being by evaluating replies to questions put to both. The Turing Test, as it was known, is still regarded as a fundamental benchmark for assessing machine intelligence.
“Artificial Intelligence is what we don’t know how to do yet” – Alan Kay (American computer scientist)
Defining Artificial Intelligence
Now for the techy bit… Sorry, bear with me. The term ‘artificial intelligence’ was first used in 1956 at a Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence held at Dartmouth College, a private Ivy League research university based in Hanover, New Hampshire, USA. The conference was organised by computer scientist and Assistant Professor of Mathematics at Dartmouth College, John McCarthy (1927‑2011). The project proposed, “that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it”.
In 1958, American psychologist Frank Rosenblatt (1928‑1971) outlined what he regarded as “the first machine which is capable of having an original idea”. Rosenblatt’s concept was the ‘Perceptron’, a program inspired by the way the human brain works, which ran on a state‑of‑the‑art IBM mainframe computer. The Perceptron was a rudimentary version of a neural network, comprising interconnected nodes (neurons) that process and learn from data, enabling tasks such as pattern recognition and decision making. Rosenblatt was regarded as ‘the father of deep learning’.
As early as the 1960s, computer scientists and neuroscientists were already teaching computers how to mimic human decision‑making processes, which developed into research around what is known today as ‘machine learning’.
“If the human brain were so simple that we could understand it, we would be so simple that we couldn’t” – Emerson M. Pugh (American physicist)
In 1997, IBM’s ‘Deep Blue’, an expert chess program running on a unique, purpose‑built IBM supercomputer, beat the Russian chess grandmaster, Garry Kasparov, leading to the description of rules‑based ‘Traditional AI’. While Deep Blue may have been excellent at playing chess, its talents were capable of little else.
“AI is the most exciting tech of our time” – Tim Cook (CEO, Apple Inc.)
Artificial Intelligence is now a mainstream branch of computer science that refers to IT systems capable of performing complex tasks that attempt to replicate human thought and intelligence. AI’s systematic tasks include analysing data, identifying patterns, recognising speech, solving problems, proposing solutions and taking decisions.
“Artificial intelligence is one of the most profound things we’re working on as humanity. It is more profound than fire or electricity” – Sundar Pichai (CEO, Google and Alphabet Inc.)
As of early 2024, not all AIs are created equal. Traditional AI (a.k.a. Weak AI or Narrow AI) is an umbrella term for computer systems that employ supervised learning and discriminative models to solve specific tasks using predefined rules, Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Large Language Models (LLMs).
“Denial is the most predictable of all human responses” – the character The Architect from ‘The Matrix’ (1999)
The category of AI that we will be looking at in this article is called Generative AI, also referred to as GenAI or GAI, which is a relatively new subset of AI. Generative AI allows users to input a variety of prompts to generate content, such as text, images, videos, sounds, 3D designs and other types of media.
“We’re living in the golden age of AI” – Jeff Bezos (founder, Amazon)
The distinctive aspect of GAI is that it uses unsupervised deep machine learning models to generate new material based on patterns of data acquired from existing sources. GAI models work on large unlabelled data sets that require complex mathematical algorithms and a great deal of computing power to analyse and build constructs.
“While AI has tremendous potential to transform industries, we must not forget the impact it could have on society and must work to mitigate potential risks” – Elon Musk (CEO, Tesla and SpaceX)
Generative AI models don’t stand still; they continue to evolve at an increasingly rapid rate, as they learn from additional data as it becomes available. It is the quality of the data sets that enable the AI to predict responsible outcomes and undertake a range of cognitive tasks in the same way that a human might.
“The question is not whether intelligent machines can have any emotions, but whether machines can be intelligent without any emotions” – Marvin Minsky (American computer scientist, MIT)
Over time, it is inevitable that GAI’s ability will catch up with, and ultimately surpass, that of humans. The nature, pace and potential of GAI is causing concern among some experts and policy makers because of the moral and ethical issues it raises, particularly if AI’s unbridled behaviour is not moderated in some way by responsible human intervention. The risks of uncontrolled or poorly controlled AI models are swiftly becoming both tangible and potentially unsafe.
“We should not be afraid of AI. Instead, we should hope for the amazing amount of good it will do in the world” – Mark Zuckerberg (founder, Meta Inc.)
So, the next question is, what comes after GAI? Well, GAI still has a long way to go and that will keep innovators such as OpenAI and Deep Mind hard at work pushing the boundaries of what is possible for some time yet. After that, the most likely development would be Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) or Artificial General Superintelligence (AGS). The aim is to build a device that can do anything the human brain can do (and more) and to integrate that with the rapidly developing parallel field of advanced robotics to create a machine that can do anything the human body can do (and more). Scary? Super intelligent super robots may well finally demonstrate that yesterday’s science fiction is becoming today’s science fact.
“I am in the camp that is concerned about superintelligence. But I don’t think we need to be fatalistic about it” Bill Gates (founder, Microsoft)
However, let’s not get bogged down by credible or fanciful conspiracy theories and get back to the matter in hand.
Applying Artificial Intelligence to the world of vintage guitars
Phew! Back to basics and more familiar territory. After all that preliminary exposition, I think we can all probably agree that AI is one of topical themes of the first half of the 2020s. Not wishing to be left behind, I thought CRAVE Guitars should try to get AI to respond to a series of questions about my favourite topic, vintage guitars. From my experience so far, all that the easily accessible public AI (as opposed to military‑grade AI) can do is to extract information that is already available on the Internet (whether right or wrong) and to compose it into straightforward responses to an input.
Before we start, I will lay my cards on the table and state my starting position, which, may or may not change by the time this article has concluded. My naïve biological brain came up with eight statements that set out what AI does not (or cannot) currently do. In my view, AI struggles…
To understand a question correctly without over‑specificity (i.e. it can’t deal with vague ambiguity)
To interpret and extrapolate relevant information objectively within a wider context (i.e. the bigger picture)
To present a cogent argument that can adequately be judged and/or challenged
To form a genuine opinion from scratch without relevant information being readily available in the first place, in the same way that a person might do in the case of uncertainty (i.e. its ability to make genuinely informed assumptions from limited information)
To debate the initial result to achieve a potentially better outcome (i.e. to learn from the interaction on the spot and adjust its responses accordingly)
To produce a creative response that improves on the original information input by humans
To remember what it has already output (i.e. as part of a continuous ‘dialogue’ – as here – each question is treated as a new subject with no memory of previous questions)
To understand fully what humans want or expect from ‘intelligence’ (i.e. something coherent and interesting)
Assessing AI’s responses against those eight points is this article’s main challenge.
Below, I pose 20 (plus 2) questions to AI and present its verbatim response to each question (bar correcting the occasional heinous ‘typo’ or bad grammar, which in itself is a bit ironic!), so that you can judge for yourselves just how close AI might be to succeeding at transcending its silicon‑based electronic components (‘deus ex machina’ – god from the machine – if you will). More importantly, you can gauge whether AI can make any sense of the intricately complex subject of vintage guitars. So… can AI pass the CRAVE Guitars Test? We’ll see.
There are no images in the main part of this article. AI did not present any pictures to support its answers, so I haven’t embellished the words with anything additional, as it might skew the results. What you see below is what I got, no more, no less; untainted in any way.
The material presented here is not appropriated as belonging to, or being the view of CRAVE Guitars in any way; it is presented here solely for information, intellectual evaluation and critique.
“Change is never painful, only the resistance to change is painful” Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama ‑ c.480‑400BCE)
Right. That’s my involvement pretty much at an end for now. I’m off to make a cup of tea or ten. See you again at the end of the article with my appraisal of how I think AI did.
20 Questions about vintage guitars posed to AI
Question #1 – What is the definition of a vintage guitar?
AI Response #1 – A vintage guitar is an older guitar that is usually sought after and maintained by avid collectors or musicians. The term can indicate either that an instrument is merely old or that it is sought after for its tonal quality, cosmetic appearance, or historical significance. While there is no strict chronological definition for what makes something vintage, guitars around 30 years old or older typically fall into this category. Even newer instruments are often labelled as vintage by sellers. So, if you come across a beautifully aged guitar with a rich history, it just might be a vintage gem!
Question #2 – Why should I be interested in vintage guitars?
AI Response #2 – Vintage guitars have a unique appeal and charm due to their age and history. They often possess a certain character and sound that cannot be replicated by newer guitars. In addition, vintage guitars can appreciate in value over time, making them a valuable investment. However, they can be expensive and require careful maintenance. Understanding the vintage guitar market, knowing what to look for when buying, and appreciating the unique sound and playability of these instruments are key to making a worthwhile purchase. Ask professional guitar dealers on how to navigate the vintage guitar market.
Question #3 – What are the best things about vintage guitars?
AI Response #3 – Vintage guitars have several unique qualities that make them highly desirable for musicians and collectors alike:
Tonal Character: Vintage guitars often have a distinct and rich sound that sets them apart from newer instruments. The aging of the wood, hardware, and electronics contributes to their unique tonal character. Musicians appreciate the warmth, resonance, and depth of vintage guitar tones.
Craftsmanship: Many vintage guitars were meticulously handcrafted by skilled luthiers. These instruments showcase exceptional attention to detail, fine workmanship, and quality materials. The craftsmanship of vintage guitars reflects the artistry and dedication of their makers.
Historical Significance: Vintage guitars carry a piece of musical history. They have witnessed decades of music, performances, and cultural shifts. Owning a vintage guitar connects you to the past and allows you to be part of a musical legacy.
Collectability: Vintage guitars are sought after by collectors and enthusiasts. Their scarcity and historical value contribute to their collectible status. Some iconic models, such as the Gibson Les Paul or Fender Stratocaster, have become legendary in the music world.
Investment Potential: While not all vintage guitars appreciate significantly in value, some rare and sought‑after models can be excellent investments. If you choose wisely and maintain the instrument well, it may appreciate over time.
Visual Appeal: Vintage guitars often exhibit beautiful designs, unique finishes, and intricate inlays. Their aesthetics evoke nostalgia and admiration. Whether it’s the graceful curves of a vintage hollow‑body or the simplicity of a vintage Telecaster, these guitars are visually captivating.
Playing Experience: Many musicians find that playing a vintage guitar is a special experience. The feel of the neck, the responsiveness of the fretboard, and the way the guitar resonates under their fingers create a connection that transcends mere functionality.
Story and Provenance: Each vintage guitar has a story to tell. Who played it? Was it used on famous recordings? Did it travel the world with a touring band? Uncovering the history and provenance of a vintage guitar adds to its allure.
Remember that owning a vintage guitar requires careful consideration. Factors like condition, authenticity, and playability matter. Whether you’re a seasoned guitarist or a collector, the allure of vintage guitars lies in their blend of art, history, and music.
Question #4 – What are the worst things about vintage guitars?
AI Response #4 – While vintage guitars have their allure, there are some potential downsides to consider:
Condition and Maintenance: Vintage guitars may have endured decades of use, wear, and aging. Their condition can vary significantly. Some may require extensive repairs, refrets, or replacement parts. Regular maintenance is essential to keep them playable.
Fragility: Older guitars can be delicate. The wood may have dried out, making it more susceptible to cracks or warping. Vintage finishes are often thin and prone to chipping. Handling them with care is crucial.
Cost: Authentic vintage guitars can be expensive. Rare models or those associated with famous musicians command high prices. If you’re on a budget, acquiring a well‑preserved vintage instrument may be challenging.
Limited Availability: Truly exceptional vintage guitars are scarce. Finding the right one—especially in good condition—can be time‑consuming. Patience and persistence are necessary.
Playability: While vintage guitars have character, not all of them are easy to play. Neck profiles, fret sizes, and action may differ from modern standards. Some vintage instruments may feel less ergonomic.
Incompatibility with Modern Gear: Vintage guitars may lack features found in contemporary models. For example, they might not have versatile pickup configurations, tremolo systems, or locking tuners. Compatibility with modern amplifiers and effects can be an issue.
Weight: Some vintage electric guitars, especially solid‑body models, can be heavy. Prolonged playing sessions may strain your back and shoulders.
Risk of Fakes and Forgeries: The vintage guitar market attracts counterfeiters. It’s essential to verify authenticity and provenance. Consult experts or reputable dealers to avoid purchasing a fake.
Investment Uncertainty: While some vintage guitars appreciate in value, it’s not guaranteed. Market trends fluctuate, and economic fac